The Learning environment in upper secondary school physical education: The student perspective

Authors

Keywords:

learning environment, upper secondary school, physical education

Synopsis

The overreaching aim of this thesis was to gain a better understanding of the students’ perceptions of the learning environment in upper secondary school physical education, with special focus on marginalized subgroups. More specifically, the intention was to explore whether students perceived their learning environment differently depending on their teachers’ gender, the learning support they received or the perceived competence they had. Despite the learning environment being a well-researched phenomenon in the more academic school subjects, there was a substantial knowledge gap concerning its influence in physical education. The individual works that form this ensemble aimed to occlude some of those gaps. In an effort to achieve the aforementioned aims, a new instrument measuring teacher learning support in the physical education context was also constructed and validated.

The chosen methodology for the thesis was cross-sectional, comprising of a multicomponent self-report questionnaire. The data was analyzed using various analytical tools, including structural modeling analysis and MANCOVA between group comparisons. The participants were 1133 upper secondary school students (Mage = 17.2, SD = 0.86) from Norway (n = 554) and Iceland (n= 579), and 17 Norwegian PE teachers (11 males, 6 females). The sampling of participants was performed using a stratified procedure representing both urban, suburban and rural settlements. Multiple steps were taken to ensure adequate sample representability.

The collective results of the individual papers indicate that the current organizational trends in PE are more in line with the needs of the highly competent students, and less so with the needs of the less competent students. This tendency intensifies the differences between these groups and may be one of the primary drivers behind the negative relationship between age and appreciation for the subject. Further, the students do not appear to be self- regulating their learning to the same extent as they are in other subjects, despite the teachers efforts to facilitate the behavior. The cause of this discrepancy likely being PE’s reputation as a recreational subject, underlined by the absence of homework and the playful nature of the lessons. Additionally, the role of the teacher’s gender in influencing the PE experience seems to be exaggerated. Gender matching and positive discrimination of female PE teachers are therefore unlikely to improve the learning environment of female students.

The concluding recommendations are multitudinous and include suggestions to all the stakeholders of the subject. They include an appeal to the policymakers to rely more heavily on the body of research when implementing or adjusting policy, a plea to the teaching institutions educating the physical education teachers to emphasize formative teaching practices to a greater extent in their program, in order to promote learning behavior, and a call to the physical education teachers to address the various challenges related to the less interested and less competent students by reducing the benefits of sporting experience and ameliorating the current curriculum implementations by introducing more non-traditional sports and activities.

Author Biography

Aron Gauti Laxdal

External Consultant
Department of Education and Sports Science
University of Stavanger
E-mail: aron.laxdal@uis.no

References

Aasland, E., Walseth, K., & Engelsrud, G. (2019). The constitution of the 'able'and 'less able'student in physical education in Norway. Sport, Education and Society, 1-14.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2019.1622521

Alfermann, D. (1999). Teacher-Student Interaction and Interaction Patterns in Student Groups. In Y. V Auweele (Ed.) Psychology for Physical Educators (pp. 343-377). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

American Association of University Women. (1994). Shortchanging girls, shortchanging America. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women.

Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of educational psychology, 84(3), 261-271.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.261

Anderssen, N. (1993). Perception of physical education classes among young adolescents: do physical education classes provide equal opportunities to all students? Health Education Research, 8(2), 167-179.

https://doi.org/10.1093/her/8.2.167

Andrew, M. (1990). The differences between graduates of four-year and five- year teacher preparation programs. Journal of Teacher Education, 41, 45-51.

https://doi.org/10.1177/002248719004100206

Andrews, T., & Johansen, V. (2005). Gym er det faget jeg hater mest. Norsk pedagogisk tidsskrift, 89(04), 302-314.

Annerstedt, C. (2005). Physical Education in Sweden. In U. Pühse & M. Gerber (eds.), International Comparison of Physical Education: Concepts, Problems, Prospects (pp. 604-629). Oxford: Meyer & Mayer Sport.

Annerstedt, C. (2008). Physical education in Scandinavia with a focus on Sweden: a comparative perspective. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 13(4), 303-318.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17408980802353347

Altintaş, A., & Asçi, F. H. (2008). Physical self-esteem of adolescents with regard to physical activity and pubertal status. Pediatric Exercise Science, 20, 142-156.

https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.20.2.142

Anonymous [Def. 2]. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster Online. In Merriam-Webster. Retrieved June 26, 2017, from https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/anonymous

Antecol, H., Eren, O., & Ozbeklik, S. (2014). The effect of teacher gender on student achievement in primary school. Journal of Labor Economics, 33(1), 63-89.

https://doi.org/10.1086/677391

Arnesen, T. E., Nilsen, A. K., & Leirhaug, P. E. (2013). "Den læreplanen som ikkje kan tilpassast mi undervisning, finst ikkje.": vurdering og undervisning i kroppsøving etter kunnskapsløftet. Tidsskriftet FoU i praksis, 7, 9-32.

Baker, J. A. (1999). Teacher-student interaction in urban at-risk classrooms: Differential behavior, relationship quality, and student satisfaction with school. The elementary school journal, 100(1), 57-70.

https://doi.org/10.1086/461943

Bakken, A. (2009). Er mannlige lærere viktige for gutters skoleprestasjoner? Tidsskrift for ungdomsforskning, 9(2), 25-44.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological review, 84(2), 191.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191

Beaton, D. E., Bombardier, C., Guillemin, F., & Ferraz, M. B. (2000). Guidelines for the process of cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures. Spine, 25(24), 3186-3191.

https://doi.org/10.1097/00007632-200012150-00014

Berg, P., & Lahelma, E. (2010). Gendering processes in the field of physical education. Gender and education, 22(1), 31-46.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250902748184

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: principles, policy & practice, 5(1), 7-74.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0969595980050102

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2010). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(1), 81-90.

https://doi.org/10.1177/003172171009200119

Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2004). Working inside the black box: Assessment for learning in the classroom. Phi delta kappan, 86(1), 8-21.

https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170408600105

Bloom, B. S. Hastings, J. T., & Madaus, G. F. (1971). Handbook on formative and summative evaluation of student learning. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Bliss, C. I., Greenwood, M. L., & White, E. S. (1956). A rankit analysis of paired comparisons for measuring the effect of sprays on flavor. Biometrics, 12(4), 381-403.

https://doi.org/10.2307/3001679

Bortoli, L., Bertollo, M., Comani, S., & Robazza, C. (2011). Competence, achievement goals, motivational climate, and pleasant psychobiosocial states in youth sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(2), 171-180.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2010.530675

Boser, U., Wilhelm, M., & Hanna, R. (2014). The Power of the Pygmalion Effect: Teachers' Expectations Strongly Predict College Completion. Washington, DC: Center for American Progress.

Braithwaite, R., Spray, C. M., & Warburton, V. E. (2011). Motivational climate interventions in physical education: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12(6), 628-638.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.06.005

Brock, R. L., Barry, R. A., Lawrence, E., Dey, J., & Rolffs, J. (2012). Internet administration of paper-and-pencil questionnaires used in couple research: assessing psychometric equivalence. Assessment, 19(2), 226- 242.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191110382850

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American psychologist, 32(7), 513-531.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.32.7.513

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental psychology, 22(6), 723-742.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.22.6.723

Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The Bioecological Model of Human Development. In R. M. Lerner & W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development (pp. 793-828). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0114

Bruggink, M., Meijer, W., Goei, S. L., & Koot, H. M. (2014). Teachers' perceptions of additional support needs of students in mainstream primary education. Learning and Individual Differences, 30, 163-169. Cappon, P. (2011). Exploring the" Boy Crisis" in Education. Canadian Council on Learning.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.11.005

Cairney, J., Kwan, M. Y., Velduizen, S., Hay, J., Bray, S. R., & Faught, B. E. (2012). Gender, perceived competence and the enjoyment of physical education in children: a longitudinal examination. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9(26), 1-8.

https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-26

Carrington, B., Francis, B., Hutchings, M., Skelton, C., Read, B., & Hall, I. (2007). Does the gender of the teacher really matter? Seven‐to eight‐ year‐olds' accounts of their interactions with their teachers. Educational Studies, 33(4), 397-413.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03055690701423580

Carroll, B., & Loumidis, J. (2001). Children's perceived competence and enjoyment in physical education and physical activity outside school. European physical education review, 7(1), 24-43.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X010071005

Chang, Y. K., Chen, S., Tu, K. W., & Chi, L. K. (2016). Effect of autonomy support on self-determined motivation in elementary physical education. Journal of sports science & medicine, 15(3), 460-466.

Cho, I. (2012). The effect of teacher-student gender matching: Evidence from OECD countries. Economics of Education Review, 31(3), 54-67.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.02.002

Cleary, T. J., Platten, P., & Nelson, A. (2008). Effectiveness of the self- regulation empowerment program with urban high school students. Journal of Advanced Academics, 20(1), 70-107.

https://doi.org/10.4219/jaa-2008-866

Cleary, T. J., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2004). Self‐regulation empowerment program: A school‐based program to enhance self‐regulated and self‐ motivated cycles of student learning. Psychology in the Schools, 41(5), 537-550.

https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.10177

Cohen, J. (1969). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York: Academic Press.

Cox, A., Duncheon, N., & McDavid, L. (2009). Peers and teachers as sources of relatedness perceptions, motivation, and affective responses in physical education. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 80(4), 765-773.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2009.10599618

Cothran, D. (2010). Students' curricular values and experiences. In M. O'Sullivan & A. MacPhail (Eds.), Young People's Voices in Physical Education and Youth Sport. (pp. 49-62). London: Routledge.

Cothran, D. J., Kulinna, P. H., & Garrahy, D. A. (2009). Attributions for and consequences of student misbehavior. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 14(2), 155-167.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17408980701712148

Couturier, L. E., Chepko, S., & Coughlin, M. A. (2007). Whose gym is it? Gendered perspectives on middle and secondary school physical education. Physical Educator, 64(3), 152-158.

Cox, A., & Williams, L. (2008). The roles of perceived teacher support, motivational climate, and psychological need satisfaction in students' physical education motivation. Journal of sport and exercise psychology, 30(2), 222-239.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.30.2.222

Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297-334.

https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555

Crum, B. (2012). How to pave the road to a better future for physical education. Journal of Physical Education & Health-Social Perspective, 2(3), 53- 64.

Dabbagh, N., & Kitsantas, A. (2012). Personal Learning Environments, social media, and self-regulated learning: A natural formula for connecting formal and informal learning. The Internet and Higher Education, 15(1), 3-8.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.06.002

Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Solving the dilemmas of teacher supply, demand, and standards: How we can ensure a competent, caring, and qualified teacher for every child. New York: National Commission on Teaching and America's Future.

Darling-Hammond, L., Chung, R., & Frelow, F. (2002). Variation in Teacher Preparation: How Well Do Different Pathways Prepare Teachers to Teach? Journal of Teacher Education, 53(4), 286-302.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487102053004002

Deci, E., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Springer Science & Business Media.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The" what" and" why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.

https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01

Derry, J. A., & Phillips, D. A. (2004). Comparisons of selected student and teacher variables in all-girls and coeducational physical education environments. Physical Educator, 61(1), 23.

Digelidis, N., & Papaioannou, A. (1999). Age‐group differences in intrinsic motivation, goal orientations and perceptions of athletic competence, physical appearance and motivational climate in Greek physical education. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 9(6), 375-380.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.1999.tb00259.x

Digelidis, N., Papaioannou, A., Laparidis, K., & Christodoulidis, T. (2003). A one-year intervention in 7th grade physical education classes aiming to change motivational climate and attitudes towards exercise. Psychology of Sport and exercise, 4(3), 195-210.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(02)00002-X

Dowdell, T.J. (2007). Measuring Sports Class Learning Climates - the development of the Sports Class (Doctoral thesis, Griffith University). Brisbane: Griffith University.

Dowling, F. (2016). De idrettsflinkes arena: ungdoms fortellinger fra kroppsøvingsfaget med blikk på sosial klasse. In O. Seippel, M.K. Sisjord & A. Strandbu (Ed.), Ungdom og idrett (pp. 249-268). Oslo: Cappelen Damm Akademisk.

Drudy, S. (2008). Gender balance/gender bias: The teaching profession and the impact of feminisation. Gender and Education, 20(4), 309-323.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250802190156

Duda, J. L. (1993). Goals: A social-cognitive approach to the study of achievement motivation in sport. Handbook of research on sport psychology, 421-436.

Duda, J. L. (1996). Maximizing motivation in sport and physical education among children and adolescents: The case for greater task involvement. Quest, 48(3), 290-302.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.1996.10484198

Duda, J. L. (2001). Achievement goal research in sport: Pushing the boundaries and clarifying some misunderstandings. In G. C. Roberts (Ed.), Advances in motivation in sport and exercise (pp. 129-182). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Duda, J. L., & Hall, H. (2001). Achievement goal theory in sport: Recent extensions and future directions. Handbook of sport psychology, 2, 417-443.

Dudley, D. A., Okely, A. D., Pearson, P., & Peat, J. (2010). Engaging adolescent girls from linguistically diverse and low income backgrounds in school sport: a pilot randomised controlled trial. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 13(2), 217-224.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2009.04.008

Education Amendments Act of 1972, 20 U.S.C. §§1681 - 1688 (2018).

Erdvik, I. B., Haugen, T., Ivarsson, A., & Säfvenbom, R. (2019a). Development of basic psychological need satisfaction in physical education. Journal for Research in Arts and Sports Education.

https://doi.org/10.23865/jased.v3.1375

Erdvik, I. B., Haugen, T., Ivarsson, A., & Säfvenbom, R. (2019b). Global Self- Worth among Adolescents: The Role of Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction in Physical Education. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 1-14.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2019.1600578

Ennis, C. D. (1999). Creating a culturally relevant curriculum for disengaged girls. Sport, Education and Society, 4(1), 31-49.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1357332990040103

European Commission. (2013), Physical Education and Sport at school in Europe Eurydice Report. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.

Fagrell, B., Larsson, H., & Redelius, K. (2012). The game within the game: girls' underperforming position in Physical Education. Gender and Education, 24(1), 101-118.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2011.582032

Fairclough, S. (2003). Physical activity, perceived competence and enjoyment during high school physical education. European Journal of Physical Education, 8(1), 5-18.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1740898030080102

Ferrer-Caja, E., & Weiss, M. R. (2000). Predictors of intrinsic motivation among adolescent students in physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71(3), 267-279.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2000.10608907

Flintoff, A., & Scraton, S. (2006). Girls and physical education. In D. Kirk, D. Macdonald & M. O'Sullivan (Eds.), The handbook of physical education, (pp. 767-783). London: Sage.

https://doi.org/10.4135/9781848608009.n43

Fraser, B. J. (1981). Learning environment in curriculum evaluation: A review. Evaluation in education, 5(1), 1-93.

https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-765X(81)90014-8

Fraser, B. J. (1998). Classroom environment instruments: Development, validity and applications. Learning environments research, 1(1), 7-34.

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009932514731

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009994030661

Fraser, B. J. (2015). Classroom learning environments. In R. Gunstone (Ed.) Encyclopedia of science education (pp. 154-157). Dordrecht: Springer. Fraser, B. J., Anderson, G.J. & Walberg, H.J. (1982). Assessment of learning environments: manual for Learning Environment Inventory (LEI) and My Class Inventory (MCI) (3rd edition). Perth, Australia: Western Australian Institute of Technology.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2150-0_186

Fraser, B. J. & Tobin, K. (1989). Student perceptions of psychosocial environments in classrooms of exemplary science teachers. International Journal of Science Education,11, 14-34.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069890110103

Friedrich, A., Flunger, B., Nagengast, B., Jonkmann, K., & Trautwein, U. (2015). Pygmalion effects in the classroom: Teacher expectancy effects on students' math achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 1-12.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.10.006

Gabbei, R. (2004). Generating effective facilitation questions for team- building/personal-challenge activities. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 75(9), 20-24.

https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2004.10607295

Garn, A. C., McCaughtry, N., Martin, J., Shen, B., & Fahlman, M. (2012). A Basic Needs Theory investigation of adolescents' physical self-concept and global self-esteem. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10(4), 314-328.

https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2012.705521

Gibbons, S. (2008). Female student perceptions of grade 5 physical education. Physical & Health Educational Journal, 74(3), 14-19.

Goudas, M., Dermitzaki, I., & Bagiatis, K. (2001). Motivation in physical education is correlated with participation in sport after school. Psychological Reports, 88(2), 491-496.

https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2001.88.2.491

Green, K. (2014). Mission impossible? Reflecting upon the relationship between education, youth sport and lifelong participation. Sport Education and Society, 19(4), 357-375.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2012.683781

Green, K., Thurston, M., Vaage, O., & Moen, K. M. (2015). Girls, young women and sport in Norway: a case of sporting convergence amid favourable socio-economic circumstances. International Journal of Sport policy and politics, 7(4), 531-550.

https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2015.1031812

Guðmundsdóttir, M. L., Jón Sigfússon, J., & Sigfúsdóttir, I. D. (2014). Ánægja í íþróttum: Niðurstöður rannsókna meðal framhaldsskólanema. Reykjavík: Rannsóknir & greining.

Gudmundsson, E. (2009). Guidelines for translating and adapting psychological instruments. Nordic Psychology, 61(2), 29.

https://doi.org/10.1027/1901-2276.61.2.29

Guillemin, F., Bombardier, C., & Beaton, D. (1993). Cross-cultural adaptation of health-related quality of life measures: literature review and proposed guidelines. Journal of clinical epidemiology, 46(12), 1417- 1432.

https://doi.org/10.1016/0895-4356(93)90142-N

Hagger, M. S., Chatzisarantis, N. L., Culverhouse, T., & Biddle, S. J. (2003). The processes by which perceived autonomy support in physical education promotes leisure-time physical activity intentions and behavior: a trans-contextual model. Journal of educational psychology, 95(4), 784-795.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.784

Hagger, M. S., Chatzisarantis, N. L., Barkoukis, V., Wang, C. K. J., & Baranowski, J. (2005). Perceived autonomy support in physical education and leisure-time physical activity: a cross-cultural evaluation of the trans-contextual model. Journal of educational psychology, 97(3), 376-390.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.3.376

Hagstofan. (2017). Yfirlit yfir nemendur á framhaldsskólasatigi. Retrieved from https://www.hagstofa.is/talnaefni/ samfelag/menntun/yfirlit/

Hannon, J. C., & Williams, S. M. (2008). Should secondary physical education be coeducational or single-sex? Journal of physical education, recreation & dance, 79(2), 6-56.

https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2008.10598126

Hardman, K. (2008). Physical education in schools: a global perspective. Kinesiology, 40(1), 15-28.

https://doi.org/10.2478/v10038-008-0001-z

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible Learning: A Synthesis of over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement. London: Routledge.

Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of educational research, 77(1), 81-112.

https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487

Haugen, T., Ommundsen, Y., & Seiler, S. (2013). The relationship between physical activity and physical self-esteem in adolescents: The role of physical fitness indices. Pediatric Exercise Science, 25(1), 138-153.

https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.25.1.138

Heikinaro-Johansson, P., & Telama, R. (2005). Physical Education in Finland. In U. Pühse & M. Gerber (eds.), International Comparison of Physical Education: Concepts, Problems, Prospects (pp. 250-271). Oxford: Meyer & Mayer Sport.

Hill, G. M., Hannon, J. C., & Knowles, C. (2012). Physical education teachers' and university teacher educators' perceptions regarding coeducational vs. single gender physical education. Physical Educator, 69(3), 265- 288.

Hopfenbeck, T., N. (2014). Strategier for læring: Om selvregulering, vurdering og god undervisning. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.

How, Y. M., Whipp, P., Dimmock, J., & Jackson, B. (2013). The effects of choice on autonomous motivation, perceived autonomy support, and physical activity levels in high school physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 32(2), 131-148.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.32.2.131

Jackson, D. (1998). Breaking out of the binary trap: boys' underachievement, schooling and gender relations. In D. Epstein, J. Elwood, V. Hey & J. Maw (Eds.), Failing Boys? Issues in Gender and Achievement (pp. 77- 95). Buckingham: Open University Press.

Jónsson, K., Ólafsdóttir, E., Bragadóttir, I., Guðlaugsson, J., & Ingólfsson, Þ. (2006). Drög að námskrá í íþróttum - líkams- og heilsurækt fyrir framhaldsskóla. Reykjavík: Menntamálaráðuneytið.

Jöreskog, K. G. (1969). A general approach to confirmatory maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 34(2), 183-202.

https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02289343

Kangas, M. (2010). Finnish children's views on the ideal school and learning environment. Learning Environments Research, 13(3), 205-223.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-010-9075-6

Kastrup, V., & Kleindienst-Cachay, C. (2016). 'Reflective co-education'or male-oriented physical education? Teachers' views about activities in co-educational PE classes at German secondary schools. Sport, Education and Society, 21(7), 963-984.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2014.984673

Kiley, J., & Robinson, D. B. (2016). Exploring the Factors that Influence Female Students' Decision to (Not) Enroll in Elective Physical Education: A Private School Case Study. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 62(1), 19-38.

Kinchin, G. D., & O'Sullivan, M. (2003). Incidences of student support for and resistance to a curricular innovation in high school physical education. Journal of teaching in physical education, 22(3), 245-260.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.22.3.245

Kitsantas, A., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Comparing self-regulatory processes among novice, non-expert, and expert volleyball players: A microanalytic study. Journal of applied sport psychology, 14(2), 91- 105.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200252907761

Klomsten, A. T. (2016). Begrunnelser for å praktisere kjønnsdelt kroppsøving i norsk skole. Tidsskriftet FoU i praksis, 10(1), 63-84.

Klomsten, A. T., Marsh, H. W., & Skaalvik, E. M. (2005). Adolescents' perceptions of masculine and feminine values in sport and physical education: A study of gender differences. Sex roles, 52(9-10), 625-636. Klomsten, A. T., Skaalvik, E. M., & Espnes, G. A. (2004). Physical self- concept and sports: Do gender differences still exist? Sex roles, 50(1-2), 119-127.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-3730-x

Koka, A., & Hein, V. (2003a). The impact of sports participation after school on intrinsic motivation and perceived learning environment in secondary school physical education. Kinesiology, 35(1), 86-93.

Koka, A., & Hein, V. (2003b). Perceptions of teacher's feedback and learning environment as predictors of intrinsic motivation in physical education. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4(4), 333-346.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(02)00012-2

Kolovelonis, A., Goudas, M., Hassandra, M., & Dermitzaki, I. (2012). Self- regulated learning in physical education: Examining the effects of emulative and self-control practice. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(4), 383-389.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.01.005

Kretchmar, R. S. (2006). Life on easy street: The persistent need for embodied hopes and down-to-earth games. Quest, 58(3), 344-354.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2006.10491888

Kunnskapsdepartementet. (2006). Forskrift til opplæringsloven. Oslo: Kunnskapsdepartementet.

Kunnskapsdepartementet. (2014). Lærerløftet, på lag for kunnskapsskolen. Oslo: Kunnskapsdepartementet.

Kunnskapsdepartementet. (2015). Kompetanse for kvalitet: Strategi for videreutdanning for lærere og skoleledere frem mot 2025. Oslo: Kunnskapsdepartementet.

Kvamme, O. J., Mainz, J., Helin, A., Ribacke, M., Olesen, F., & Hjortdahl, P. (1998). Oversettelse av spørreskjema. Nord Med, 113, 363-366.

Labbrozzi, D., Robazza, C., Bertollo, M., Bucci I., & Bortoli, L. (2013). Pubertal development, physical self-perception, and motivation toward physical activity in girls. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 759-765.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.06.002

Lahelma, E. (2000). Lack of male teachers: A problem for students or teachers? Pedagogy, Culture and Society, 8(2), 173-186.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14681360000200093

Lam, Y. R., Tse, S. K., Lam, J. W., & Loh, E. K. (2010). Does the gender of the teacher matter in the teaching of reading literacy? Teacher gender and pupil attainment in reading literacy in Hong Kong. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(4), 754-759.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.10.010

Lamb, C. A., Oliver, K. L., & Kirk, D. (2018). 'Go for it Girl' adolescent girls' responses to the implementation of an activist approach in a core physical education programme. Sport, Education and Society, 23(8), 799-811.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2018.1484724

Larsson, H., Fagrell, B., & Redelius, K. (2009). Queering physical education. Between benevolence towards girls and a tribute to masculinity. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 14(1), 1-17.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17408980701345832

Leirhaug, P. E. (2016). Exploring the relationship between student grades and assessment for learning in Norwegian physical education. European Physical Education Review, 22(3), 298-314.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X15606473

Lirgg, C. D. (1994). Environmental perceptions of students in same-sex and coeducational physical education classes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(2), 183-192.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.86.2.183

Lirgg, C. D. (2006). Social psychology and physical education. In D. Kirk, D. Macdonald & M. O'Sullivan (Eds.), The handbook of physical education, (pp. 141-162). London: Sage.

https://doi.org/10.4135/9781848608009.n9

López-Pastor, V. M., Kirk, D., Lorente-Catalán, E., MacPhail, A., & Macdonald, D. (2013). Alternative assessment in physical education: a review of international literature. Sport, Education and Society, 18(1), 57-76.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2012.713860

Lynch, S., & Mcloughlin, G. (2018). Optimizing the learning environment for students in physical education: Integrating theories of motivation. Active + Healhy Journal, 25(1), 35-40.

MacNamara, Á., Button, A., & Collins, D. (2010). The Role of Psychological Characteristics in Facilitating the Pathway to Elite Performance Part 2: Examining Environmental and Stage-Related Differences in Skills and Behaviors. The Sport Psychologist, 24, 74-96.

https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.24.1.74

https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.24.1.52

Martin, A. J. (2013). Male Involvement in Children's Lives: The Australian Context. In J. Pattnaik (Ed.) Father Involvement in Young Children's Lives (pp. 241-260). Dordrecht: Springer.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5155-2_14

Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. (2005). Motivating boys and motivating girls: Does teacher gender really make a difference? Australian Journal of Education, 49(3), 320-334.

https://doi.org/10.1177/000494410504900308

Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., & Cheng, J. H. (2008). A multilevel perspective on gender in classroom motivation and climate: Potential benefits of male teachers for boys? Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 78-95.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.78

McAuley, E., Duncan, T., & Tammen, V. V. (1989). Psychometric properties of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory in a competitive sport setting: A confirmatory factor analysis. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 60(1), 48-58.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1989.10607413

McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2004). A longitudinal study of pubertal timing and extreme body change behaviors among adolescent boys and girls. Adolescence, 39(153), 145-166.

McEvoy, E., MacPhail, A., & Heikinaro-Johansson, P. (2015). Physical education teacher educators: A 25-year scoping review of literature. Teaching and Teacher Education, 51, 162-181.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.07.005

Menntamálaráðuneytið, (2007). Aðalnámskrá grunnskóla: Íþróttir -líkams- og heilsurækt. Reykjavík: Menntamálaráðuneytið.

Menntamálaráðuneytið, (2008). Rules on education intake of pre-, primary and secondary school teachers (nr. 87). Reykjavík: Menntamálaráðuneytið. Mercer, S. H., Nellis, L. M., Martínez, R. S., & Kirk, M. (2011). Supporting the students most in need: Academic self-efficacy and perceived teacher support in relation to within-year academic growth. Journal of School Psychology, 49(3), 323-338.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2011.03.006

Merton, R. K. (1968). The Matthew effect in science: The reward and communication systems of science are considered. Science, 159(3810), 56-63.

https://doi.org/10.1126/science.159.3810.56

Mitchell, S. A. (1996). Relationship between perceived learning environment and intrinsic motivation in middle school physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 15, 369-383.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.15.3.369

Mitchell, F., Gray, S., & Inchley, J. (2015). 'This choice thing really works…'Changes in experiences and engagement of adolescent girls in physical education classes, during a school-based physical activity programme. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 20(6), 593-611.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2013.837433

Moen, K., M., Westlie, K., Bjørke, L., & Brattli, V., H. (2018). Når ambisjon møter tradisjon: En nasjonal kartleggingsstudie av kroppsøvingsfaget i grunnskolen (5.-10. trinn). Elverum: Høgskolen i Innlandet.

Moser, T., Jacobsen, E.B., & Erdman, R. (2005). Physical Education in Norway. In U. Pühse & M. Gerber (eds.), International Comparison of Physical Education: Concepts, Problems, Prospects (pp. 512-533). Oxford: Meyer & Mayer Sport.

National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1978). The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research-the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. US Government Printing Office.

National Committee for Research Ethics in the Social Sciences and the Humanities. (2016). Guidelines for Research Ethics in the Social Sciences, Humanities, Law and Theology. Oslo: NESH.

Neugebauer, M., Helbig, M., & Landmann, A. (2010). Unmasking the myth of the same-sex teacher advantage. European sociological review, 27(5), 669-689.

https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcq038

Nicaise, V., Bois, J. E., Fairclough, S. J., Amorose, A. J., & Cogérino, G. (2007). Girls' and boys' perceptions of physical education teachers' feedback: Effects on performance and psychological responses. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25(8), 915-926.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410600898095

Nicaise, V., Cogérino, G., Bois, J., & Amorose, A. J. (2006). Students' perceptions of teacher feedback and physical competence in physical education classes: Gender effects. Journal of teaching in Physical Education, 25(1), 36-57.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.25.1.36

Nicaise, V., Cogérino, G., Fairclough, S., Bois, J., & Davis, K. (2007). Teacher feedback and interactions in physical education: Effects of student gender and physical activities. European physical education review, 13(3), 319-337.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X07081799

Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological review, 91(3), 328-346.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.328

Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane‐Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self‐ regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199-218.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070600572090

Ní Chróinín, D., & Cosgrave, C. (2013). Implementing formative assessment in primary physical education: teacher perspectives and experiences. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 18(2), 219-233.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2012.666787

Ntoumanis, N. (2001). A self‐determination approach to the understanding of motivation in physical education. British journal of educational psychology, 71(2), 225-242.

https://doi.org/10.1348/000709901158497

Ntoumanis, N. (2005). A Prospective Study of Participation in Optional School Physical Education Using a Self-Determination Theory Framework. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(3), 444-453.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.3.444

Ntoumanis, N., & Biddle, S. J. (1999). A review of motivational climate in physical activity. Journal of sports sciences, 17(8), 643-665.

https://doi.org/10.1080/026404199365678

OECD. (2017). The pursuit of gender equality: An uphill battle. Paris: OECD publishing.

https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264281318-en

Olafson, L. (2002). "I hate phys. ed.": Adolescent girls talk about physical education. Physical Educator, 59(2), 67-74.

Oliver, K. L., & Kirk, D. (2015). Girls, gender and physical education: An activist approach. Routledge.

https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315796239

Oliver, K. L., & Kirk, D. (2016). Towards an activist approach to research and advocacy for girls and physical education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 21(3), 313-327.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2014.895803

Ommundsen, Y. (2001a). Self-handicapping strategies in physical education classes: The influence of implicit theories of the nature of ability and achievement goal orientations. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2(3), 139-156.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(00)00019-4

Ommundsen, Y. (2001b). Students' implicit theories of ability in physical education classes: The influence of motivational aspects of the learning environment. Learning Environments Research, 4(2), 139-158.

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012495615828

Ommundsen, Y. (2006). Pupils' self-regulation in physical education: The role of motivational climates and differential achievement goals. European Physical Education Review, 12(3), 289-315.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X06069275

Ommundsen, Y., & Kvalø, S. E. (2007). Autonomy-Mastery, Supportive or Performance Focused? Different teacher behaviours and pupils' outcomes in physical education. Scandinavian journal of educational research, 51(4), 385-413.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00313830701485551

Ommundsen, Y. & Lemyre, P. (2007). Self-Regulation and Strategic Learning: The Role of Motivational Beliefs and the Learning Environment in Physical Education. In J., Liukkonen (Ed.) Phychology for Physical Educators: Student in Focus (2nd edition, pp. 141-173). Champaign, IL: Human

Ommundsen, Y., Roberts, G. C., Lemyre, P. N., & Treasure, D. (2003). Perceived motivational climate in male youth soccer: Relations to social-moral functioning, sportspersonship and team norm perceptions. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4(4), 397-413.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(02)00038-9

O'Sullivan, M. (1989). Failing gym is like failing lunch or recess: Two beginning teachers' struggle for legitimacy. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 8(3), 227-242.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.8.3.227

O'Sullivan, M. (2004). Possibilities and pitfalls of a public health agenda for physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 23(4), 392-404.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.23.4.392

O'Sullivan, M., Tannehill, D., Hinchion, C. (2010). Teaching as Professional Inquiry. In R. Bailey (Ed.), Physical Education for Learning. A Guide for Secondary Schools. (pp. 54-63.) New York, NY; Continuum.

Padron, Y. N., Waxman, H. C., & Huang, S. Y. L. (1999). Classroom Behavior and Learning Environment Differences Between Resilient and Nonresilient.. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 4(1), 65-82.

https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327671espr0401_5

Papaioannou, A. (1995). Differential perceptual and motivational patterns when different goals are adopted. Journal of sport and exercise psychology, 17(1), 18-34.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.17.1.18

Papaioannou, A., Marsh, H. W., & Theodorakis, Y. (2004). A multilevel approach to motivational climate in physical education and sport settings: An individual or a group level construct? Journal of sport and exercise psychology, 26(1), 90-118.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.26.1.90

Peeters, J., De Backer, F., Reina, V. R., Kindekens, A., Buffel, T., & Lombaerts, K. (2014). The role of teachers' self-regulatory capacities in the implementation of self-regulated learning practices. Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116, 1963-1970.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.504

Perlman, D. (2013). Manipulation of the self-determined learning environment on student motivation and affect within secondary physical education. The Physical Educator, 70 (4), 413-428.

Petersen, A. M., Jung, W. S., Yang, J. S., & Stanley, H. E. (2011). Quantitative and empirical demonstration of the Matthew effect in a study of career longevity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(1), 18-23.

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1016733108

Phillips, M. G., & Roper, A., R. (2006). History of physical education. In D. Kirk, D. Macdonald & M. O'Sullivan (Eds.), The handbook of physical education, (pp. 123-140). London: Sage.

https://doi.org/10.4135/9781848608009.n8

Pintrich, P. R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self- regulated learning. International journal of educational research, 31(6), 459-470.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-0355(99)00015-4

Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulation. In M. Boekaerts, P. Pintrich & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self- regulation (pp. 452-502). New York, NY: Academic Press.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50043-3

Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33-40.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.33

Prochaska, J. J., Sallis, J. F., Slymen, D. J., & McKenzie, T. L. (2003). A longitudinal study of children's enjoyment of physical education. Pediatric Exercise Science, 15(2), 170-178.

https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.15.2.170

Pühse, U., Gerber, M., Menigsen, W., & Repond, R. M. (2005). Physical Education in Switzerland. In U. Pühse & M. Gerber (ed.) International comparison of physical education: Concepts, problems, prospects (pp. 630-658). Oxford: Meyer & Meyer Sport.

Raykov, T. (1998). Coefficient alpha and composite reliability with interrelated nonhomogeneous items. Applied Psychological Measurement, 22, 375-385.

https://doi.org/10.1177/014662169802200407

Redelius, K. (2004). Bäst och pest! Ämnet idrott och hälsa bland elever i grundskolans senare år. In H. Larsson & K. Redelius (Eds.) Mellan nytta och nöje (pp. 149-172). Stockholm: Idrottshögskolan.

Richer, S., & Vallerand, R. J. (1998). Construction et validation de L'e'chelle du Sentiment d'Appartenance Sociale [Construction and validation of the Perceived Relatedness Scale]. Revue Europe'ene de Psychologie Applique'e, 48, 129-137.

Rigney, D. (2010). The Matthew effect: How advantage begets further advantage. Columbia University Press.

Robinson, L. E. (2011). The relationship between perceived physical competence and fundamental motor skills in preschool children. Child: care, health and development, 37(4), 589-596.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2010.01187.x

Rosenblum, G. D., & Lewis, M. (1999). The relations among body image, physical attractiveness, and body mass in adolescence. Child development, 70(1), 50-64.

https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00005

Rosenthal, R. (2010). Pygmalion effect. The Corsini encyclopedia of psychology, 1-2.

https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0761

Rønholt, H. (2005). Physical Education in Denmark. In U. Pühse & M. Gerber (eds.), International Comparison of Physical Education: Concepts, Problems, Prospects (pp. 206-227). Oxford: Meyer & Mayer Sport.

Sabbe, E., & Aelterman, A. (2007). Gender in teaching: a literature review. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 13(5), 521-538.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13540600701561729

Sadler, D. R. (2010). Beyond feedback: Developing student capability in complex appraisal. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(5), 535-550.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02602930903541015

Sahlberg, P. (2010). The Secret to Finland's Success: Educating Teachers.

Stanford: Stanford Center of Opportunity Policy in Education Sansone, D. (2017). Why does teacher gender matter? Economics of Education Review, 61, 9-18.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.09.004

Seifriz, J., Duda, J. L., & Chi, L. (1992). The relationship of perceived motivational climate to achievement-related affect and cognitions in basketball. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 14, 375-391.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.14.4.375

Seippel, Ø., Strandbu, Å., &, Sletten, M. A. (2011). Ungdom og trening: Endring over tid og sosiale skillelinjer (NR 3/11). Oslo: Nova.

Shen, B., McCaughtry, N., Martin, J., & Fahlman, M. (2009). Effects of teacher autonomy support and students' autonomous motivation on learning in physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 80(1), 44-53.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2009.10599528

Shen, B., McCaughtry, N., Martin, J. J., Fahlman, M., & Garn, A. C. (2012). Urban high-school girls' sense of relatedness and their engagement in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 31(3), 231-245.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.31.3.231

Shimon, J. (2005). Red Alert: gender equity issues in secondary physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 76(7), 6-10.

https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2005.10609304

Skaalvik, E. M. (1997). Self-enhancing and self-defeating ego orientation: Relations with task and avoidance orientation, achievement, self- perceptions, and anxiety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(1), 71-81.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.89.1.71

Skaalvik, E. M., Valåns, H., & Sletta, O. (1994). Task Involvement and Ego Involvement: relations with academic achievement, academic self‐ concept and self‐esteem. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 38, 231-243.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0031383940380306

Slingerland, M., Haerens, L., Cardon, G., & Borghouts, L. (2014). Differences in perceived competence and physical activity levels during single-gender modified basketball game play in middle school physical education. European Physical Education Review, 20(1), 20-35.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X13496000

Smith, N. J., Lounsbery, M. A., & McKenzie, T. L. (2014). Physical activity in high school physical education: impact of lesson context and class gender composition. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 11(1), 127-135.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2011-0334

Solmon, M. A. (1996). Impact of motivational climate on students' behaviors and perceptions in a physical education setting. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(4), 731-738.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.88.4.731

Solomon, S. R., & Sawilowsky, S. S. (2009). Impact of rank-based normalizing transformations on the accuracy of test scores. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 8(2), 448-462.

https://doi.org/10.22237/jmasm/1257034080

Sperber, A. D. (2004). Translation and validation of study instruments for cross-cultural research. Gastroenterology, 126, 124-128.

https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2003.10.016

Standage, M., Duda, J. L., & Ntoumanis, N. (2003). A model of contextual motivation in physical education: Using constructs from self- determination and achievement goal theories to predict physical activity intentions. Journal of educational psychology, 95(1), 97.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.1.97

Standage, M., Duda, J. L., & Ntoumanis, N. (2005). A test of self‐determination theory in school physical education. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(3), 411-433.

https://doi.org/10.1348/000709904X22359

Statistisk Sentral Byrå. (2017). Videregående opplæring og annen videregående utdanning. Retrieved 12.02.2018 from www.ssb.no/vgu

Subramaniam, P. R., & Silverman, S. (2007). Middle school students' attitudes toward physical education. Teaching and teacher education, 23(5), 602-611.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2007.02.003

Sykes, H., & McPhail, D. (2008). Unbearable lessons: Contesting fat phobia in physical education. Sociology of Sport Journal, 25(1), 66-96.

https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.25.1.66

Syrmpas, I., Digelidis, N., Watt, A., & Vicars, M. (2017). Physical education teachers' experiences and beliefs of production and reproduction teaching approaches. Teaching and Teacher Education, 66, 184-194.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.04.013

Säfvenbom, R., Haugen, T., & Bulie, M. (2015). Attitudes toward and motivation for PE. Who collects the benefits of the subject? Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 20(6), 629-646.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2014.892063

Tannehill, D., Romar, J. E., O'Sullivan, M., England, K., & Rosenberg, D. (1994). Attitudes toward physical education: Their impact on how physical education teachers make sense of their work. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 13(4), 406-420.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.13.4.406

Tannehill, D., van der Mars, H., & MacPhail, A. (2013). Building Effective Physical Education Programs. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Tarrant, A., Terry, G., Ward, M. R., Ruxton, S., Robb, M., & Featherstone, B. (2015). Are male role models really the solution? Interrogating the 'war on boys' through the lens of the 'male role model' discourse. Boyhood Studies, 8(1), 60-83.

https://doi.org/10.3167/bhs.2015.080105

Tay, H. Y. (2015). Setting formative assessments in real-world contexts to facilitate self-regulated learning. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 14(2), 169-187.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-015-9172-5

Theodosiou, A., & Papaioannou, A. (2006). Motivational climate, achievement goals and metacognitive activity in physical education and exercise involvement in out-of-school settings. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7(4), 361-379.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.10.002

Thomas, K. T. (2004). Riding to the rescue while holding on by a thread: physical activity in the schools. Quest, 56(1), 150-170.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2004.10491820

Thompson, A. M., Baxter-Jones, A. D., Mirwald, R. L., & Bailey, D. A. (2003). Comparison of physical activity in male and female children: does maturation matter? Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 35(10), 1684-1690.

https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000089244.44914.1F

Thompson, T., & Ungerleider, C. (2004). Single-sex schooling: Final report. Canadian Centre for Knowledge Mobilisation: Waterloo, Ontario.

Timo, J., Sami, Y. P., Anthony, W., & Jarmo, L. (2016). Perceived physical competence towards physical activity, and motivation and enjoyment in physical education as longitudinal predictors of adolescents' self- reported physical activity. Journal of science and medicine in sport, 19(9), 750-754.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2015.11.003

Torrano Montalvo, F., & González Torres, M. (2004). Self-regulated learning: Current and future directions. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 2(1), 1-34.

Trost, S. G. (2004). School physical education in the post-report era: An analysis from public health. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 23(4), 318-337.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.23.4.318

Trouilloud, D., Sarrazin, P., Bressoux, P., & Bois, J. (2006). Relation between teachers' early expectations and students' later perceived competence in physical education classes: Autonomy-supportive climate as a moderator. Journal of educational psychology, 98(1), 75-86.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.75

Tveit, S. (2014). Educational assessment in Norway. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 21(2), 221-237.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2013.830079

Ungdata (2017). Ungdata fra Rogaland fylke. Retrieved 29.08.2017 from http://www.ungdata.no/Kart?fylke=Rogaland

Utdanningsdirektoratet. (2015b). Core curriculum for primary, secondary and adult education in Norway. Retrieved from https://www.udir.no/ globalassets/filer/lareplan/generell-del/core_curriculum_english.pdf

Utdanningsdirektoratet. (2015a). Lærerplan i kroppsøving. Retrieved 08.01.2019 from http://data.udir.no/kl06/KRO1-04.pdf

Utdanningsdirektoratet. (2017a). Retrieved 29.08.2017 from https://www. udir.no/regelverk-og-tilsyn/finn-regelverk/etter-tema/Innhold-i- opplaringen/udir-01-2017/

Utdanningsdirektoratet. (2017b). Retrieved 29.08.2017 from https://www. udir.no/tall-og-forskning/finn-forskning/rapporter/barn-unge-og- voksne-med-innvandrerbakgrunn-i-grunnopplaringen/

Utdanningsdirektoratet. (2019). Hva er nytt i kroppsøving? Retrieved 06.01.2019 from https://www.udir.no/laring-og-trivsel/lareplan verket/fagspesifikk-stotte/nytt-i-fagene/hva-er-nytt-i-kroppsoving/

van Daalen, C. (2005). Girls' experiences in physical education: Competition, evaluation, & degradation. The Journal of School Nursing, 21(2), 115- 121.

https://doi.org/10.1177/10598405050210020901

van de Mortel, T. F. (2008). Faking it: social desirability response bias in self-report research. Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25(4), 40-48.

Van Sluijs, E. M., McMinn, A. M., & Griffin, S. J. (2007). Effectiveness of interventions to promote physical activity in children and adolescents: systematic review of controlled trials. British medical journal, 335(7622), 703.

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39320.843947.BE

Vertinsky, P. A. (1992). Reclaiming space, revisioning the body: The quest for gender-sensitive physical education. Quest, 44(3), 373-396.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.1992.10484063

Vogt, K. C. (2008). Er frafall i videregående opplæring et kjønnsproblem. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning, 49(4), 517-541.

Vogt, K. C. (2018). Svartmaling av gutter. Norsk sosiologisk tidsskrift, 2(02), 177-193.

https://doi.org/10.18261/issn.2535-2512-2018-01-06

Walford, G. (2005). Research ethical guidelines and anonymity. International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 28(1), 83-93.

https://doi.org/10.1080/01406720500036786

Walseth, K., Engebretsen, B., & Elvebakk, L. (2018). Meaningful experiences in PE for all students: An activist research approach. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 23(3), 235-249.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2018.1429590

Wang, M. T., & Holcombe, R. (2010). Adolescents' perceptions of school environment, engagement, and academic achievement in middle school. American Educational Research Journal 47(3), 633-662.

https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831209361209

Ward, D. S. (1982). Student perception of the classroom learning environment in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 2(1), 19-28.

https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2.1.19

Weeks, A., Swerissen, H., & Belfrage, J. (2007). Issues, challenges, and solutions in translating study instruments. Evaluation Review, 31(2), 153-165.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0193841X06294184

Wester, K. L. (2011). Publishing ethical research: a step‐by‐step overview. Journal of Counseling & Development, 89(3), 301-307.

https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2011.tb00093.x

Westergård, E., Ertesvåg, S. K., & Rafaelsen, F. (2018). A Preliminary Validity of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System in Norwegian Lower- Secondary Schools. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 1- 19.

Westerståhl, M., Barnekow‐Bergkvist, M., & Jansson, E. (2005). Low physical activity among adolescents in practical education. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 15(5), 287-297.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2004.00420.x

White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological review, 66(5), 297-333.

https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040934

Williams, G. C., & Deci, E. L. (1996). Internalization of biopsychosocial values by medical students: a test of self-determination theory. Journal of personality and social psychology, 70(4), 767-779.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.767

World Economic Forum (2017). Global Gender Gap Report 2017. Geneva: World Economic Forum.

Wright, J. (1996). The Construction of Complementarity in Physical Education. Gender & Education, 8(1), 61-80.

https://doi.org/10.1080/713668480

Yang, Y., & Green, S. B. (2010). A note on structural equation modeling estimates of reliability. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multi- disciplinary Journal, 17, 66-81.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510903438963

Yen, N. L., Bakar, K. A., Roslan, S., Luan, W. S., & Abd Rahman, P. Z. M. (2005). Predictors of Self-Regulated Learning in Malaysian Smart Schools. International education journal, 6(3), 343-353.

Young, M. R. (2005). The motivational effects of the classroom environment in facilitating self-regulated learning. Journal of Marketing Education, 27(1), 25-40.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0273475304273346

Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(3), 329-339.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.81.3.329

Zimmerman, B. J. (1998). Developing self-fulfilling cycles of academic regulation: An analysis of exemplary instructional models. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-regulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practice (pp. 1-19). New York, NY: Guilford Publications.

Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13-39). Burlington, Ma: Elsevier Academic Press.

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50031-7

Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a Self-Regulated Learner: An Overview. Theory into Practice, 41(2), 64-70.

https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2

Zimmerman, B. J. (2006). Development and Adaptation of Expertise: The Role of Self-Regulatory Processes and Beliefs. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. J. Feltovich, & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 705-722). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511816796.039

Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating Self-Regulation and Motivation: Historical Background, Methodological Developments, and Future Prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 166-183.

https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831207312909

Zimmerman, B. J., & Pons, M. M. (1986). Development of a structured interview for assessing student use of self-regulated learning strategies. American educational research journal, 23(4), 614-628.

https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312023004614

Zimmerman, B. J., & Pons, M. M. (1988). Construct validation of a strategy model of student self-regulated learning. Journal of educational psychology, 80(3), 284-290.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.3.284

Zimmerman, B. J., Schunk, D. H., & DiBenedetto, M. K. (2015). A personal agency view of self-regulated learning. In R. Guay, H. Marsh, D. M. McInernay & R. G. Craven (Eds.), Self-concept, motivation and identity: Underpinning success with research and practice (pp. 83- 114). Charlotte, NC: Information age publishing.

Cover image

Downloads

Published

May 28, 2020

License

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.