Shelters in single‐tube road tunnels: A study of the strength of knowledge
Keywords:
single‐tube road tunnels, road tunnels, safetySynopsis
This study investigates shelters as a risk reducing measure for road-users enforced to self-rescue in existing single-tube road tunnels, in which smoke engulfment is a plausible emergency scenario. Once people are engulfed in smoke the uncertainties regarding toxicity and immediate danger is imminent, and there must be solutions available for the road-users within a short time span. One such solution is shelters. To avoid any value-laden terminology we have established the acronym SWETO, which stands for Shelter Without an exit leading to Escape routes To the Open. The term is stating that the rooms are connected to the outside only through the tunnel space. The Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA) needs to scrutinize the possibilities to integrate SWETOs in tunnels, because the current conditions of the evacuation systems are critical.
There are no absolute requirements for emergency exits in existing road tunnels. The regulations address traffic volume as an important indicator of tunnel classification and the need of emergency exits. Previous events show that serious accidents can occur in tunnels where the traffic volume is low. The self-rescue strategy in a specific tunnel is ultimately to be based on a risk analysis and associated choice of dimensioning scenarios for the evacuation system. Integrating emergency exits in existing Norwegian road tunnels’ evacuation systems is a major task in terms of costs and constructability. SWETOs are an alternative that accommodate these issues, but road owners are currently prohibited from establishing SWETOs in tunnels covered by the Directive 2004/54/EC. However, despite the current tunnel safety regulations, the NPRA takes a clear stand to incorporate SWETOs as part of the evacuation system in some single-tube, bi-directional road tunnels. The hypothesis is that shelters, given appropriate design and management, can provide a positive contribution to safety. A general prohibition, as in the EU-directive, is not reasonable. The assumption that safe shelters are merely a design issue and a sociotechnical challenge to ensure intended performance needs to be discussed.
The NPRA has initiated two pilot studies in addition to the already operational SWETOs in the Oslofjord tunnel, that include exceptions to the prohibition of "shelters without an exit leading to escape routes to the open". These projects are the Flekkerøy tunnel in Agder county municipality and the Frøya tunnel in Trøndelag county municipality. Agder county municipality and Trøndelag county municipality are obliged to participate in a follow-up R&D project after the tunnels have been built. Experiences from the pilot projects could influence any initiative to change the regulations on this matter.
The study reported in this document had the intention to update and supplement the basis already established by the R&D project "Safety management in road tunnels" (NPRA, 2020a) and concretizing the content of the R&D program for the pilot projects. Four research questions have been raised as important issues for justifying or rejecting SWETOs for long single tube bi-directional tunnels:
- RQ1: What characterizes the official European approach towards SWETOs in the work preceding Directive 2004/54/EC and the following implementation and supervision of the directive?
- RQ2: What do we currently know about Norwegian tunnel systems, major events, and previous and ongoing research that reflects the benefits and challenges of SWETOs to improve the safety of tunnel users in single-tube road tunnels?
- RQ3: What does recent scientific studies contribute with in terms of supporting, contradicting and/or expanding our knowledge about benefits and challenges of SWETOs to improve the safety of tunnel users in single-tube road tunnels?
- RQ4: To what extent does current knowledge support our understanding of benefits and challenges associated with SWETOs to improve the safety of tunnel users in single-tube road tunnels, and what are reasonable next steps to strengthen our knowledge?
While RQ1 is associated with understanding historical processes, RQ2-4 is about exploring what knowledge is needed to assess whether SWETOs are an appropriate safety measure in the Norwegian context or not, and subsequently what is the strength of available knowledge. The following functional requirements (FR) and connected topics were identified as a framework for collecting and analyzing the strength of knowledge:
- FR1: The tunnel and associated technical systems must be designed and constructed considering tunnel users’ behavior in road tunnels in general and in accident situations specifically.
o Driving behavior in road tunnels.
o Human behavior in accident situations in road tunnels and situations associated with major uncertainties and stress.
- FR2: The tunnel users must be aware of and have sufficient knowledge about the safety measures in the road tunnel in case of an accident.
o Tunnel users’ general level of knowledge about tunnel safety.
o TCC operators’ ability to gain situation awareness and communicate relevant information to tunnel users.
o Tunnel users’ ability to understand and follow instructions during an evolving accident situation.
- FR3: The SWETO’s construction must, over time, withstand relevant accident loads for a sufficient time to make rescue operations possible.
o Relevant accident loads now and in the future? o Fire resistance of individual construction elements and combined systems’ effect, e.g., fixed firefighting systems’ cooling effect on wall elements.
o Fire and rescue services’ knowledge and capacity to combat relevant accident loads in road tunnels, and their ability to adjust response tactics to an emerging situation.
o Operation, maintenance, and degradation of safety measures in road tunnels.
To investigate the status of knowledge, we initiated seven research activities (RA). RA1 was a study of public documents and literature associated with the development and implementation of Directive 2004/54/EC and RA2 included discussions with professionals involved with the same process. RA3 included the involvement of experts through a - workshop. RA4 was the development and presentation of a paper at the International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security 2023 in Stavanger. The conference normally attracts more than 200 delegates and was seen as a possible arena to present the Norwegian opinions on modern SWETOs and exploring the international response. RA5 was a study of recently published (limited to 2015-2023) literature in scientific peer-reviewed journals on the issues FR1 – FR3. RA6 was a system theoretic process analysis (STPA) of SWETOs in single-tube road tunnels, which served as a foundation for identifying functional requirements and safety constraints to SWETOs. RA7 was an analysis of available knowledge associated with FR1 – FR3 organized as a discussion.
References
AMALBERTI, R. 2001. The paradoxes of almost totally safe transportation systems. Safety Science, 37, 109-126.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-7535(00)00045-X
AMUNDSEN, F. H. 1994. Studies of Driver Behaviour in Norwegian Road Tunnels. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 9, 9-15.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0886-7798(94)90004-3
AMUNDSEN, F. H. 2017. The five great tunnel fires in Norway (in Norwegian). Oslo, Norway: Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA).
AMUNDSEN, F. H. & ENGEBRETSEN, A. 2009. Studies on Norwegian Road Tunnels II : an analysis on traffic accidents in road tunnels 2001-2006. Norwegian Public Roads Administration.
AMUNDSEN, F. H., ENGEBRETSEN, A. & RANES, G. 2001. Car Fires and Breakdowns in Norwegian Road Tunnels 1990-2000. In: TRAFFIC, D. O. T. A. (ed.). Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA),.
AN, W., HU, M., GAO, J., XIE, Y. & YU, S. 2022. Experiment on Evacuation Behavior in Full- Scale Tunnel with Different Guiding Pattern. International Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems Research, 20, 793-804.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13177-022-00327-z
BEA-TT 2006. Provisional technical investigation report on the heavy goods vehicle fire that occurred in the Fréjus tunnel on June 4, 2005 (in French). French Land Transport Accident Investigation Bureau (BEA-TT).
BEARD, A. & CARVEL, R. (eds.) 2012. Handbook of Tunnel Fire Safety : ICE Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1680/htfs.41530
BIE, H. Y. & HAO, Z. R. 2017. Simulation analysis on the risk of hydrogen releases and combustion in subsea tunnels. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 42, 7617-7624.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.05.263
BJELLAND, H. 2013. Engineering Safety: With applications to fire safety design of buildings and road tunnels. Ph.D. thesis, Stavanger University.
BJELLAND, H. & AVEN, T. 2013. Treatment of uncertainty in risk assessments in the Rogfast road tunnel project. Safety Science, 55, 34-44.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2012.12.012
BJELLAND, H. & NJÅ, O. 2022. A Nordic approach to fire safety engineering - Will standardization of probabilistic methods to verify fire safety designs of novel buildings improve engineering practices? Safety Science, 148.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105651
BJELLAND, H., NJÅ, O., HESKESTAD, A. W. & BRAUT, G. S. 2015. The Concepts of Safety Level and Safety Margin: Framework for Fire Safety Design of Novel Buildings. Fire Technology, 51, 409-441.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-014-0400-y
BJELLAND, H., NJÅ, O., HESKESTAD, A. W. & BRAUT, G. S. 2021. Emergency preparedness for tunnel fires - A systems-oriented approach. Safety Science, 143, 105408.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105408
BJØRNSEN, G., BILLETT, S. & NJÅ, O. 2023a. First responders' perceived and actual competence in tunnel fire safety. Fire Safety Journal, 136, 103758.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2023.103758
BJØRNSEN, G., BRAUT, G. S. & NJÅ, O. 2019. A tool to asses learning processes based on the cooperation principle. Accepted for publication in IJSEAM.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48021-9_10
BJØRNSEN, G., DETTWEILER, U., NJÅ, O. & KNUDSEN, K. 2023b. Towards an understanding of learning within the Norwegian fire and rescue services - focusing on tunnel fire safety. Journal of Workplace Learning, 35, 112-128.
https://doi.org/10.1108/JWL-04-2022-0051
BJØRNSEN, G. & KNAPSTAD, T. 2017. Sikker kjøring i tunneler. M.Sc., University of Stavanger (UiS).
BJØRNSEN, G. & NJÅ, O. 2020. Competence constraints for fire and rescue personnel involved in tunnel fire safety as part of the tunnels risk acceptability. In Competence constraints for fire and rescue personnel involved in tunnel fire safety as part of the tunnels risk acceptability: Research Publishing Services.
https://doi.org/10.3850/978-981-14-8593-0_5069-cd
BOLETSIS, C. & NILSSON, E. G. 2021. Risk-TUN: Risk-aware Decision Support System for Tunnel Safety. Oslo, Norway: Sintef report 2021:00140.
BORG, A., BJELLAND, H. & NJÅ, O. 2014. Reflections on Bayesian Network models for road tunnel safety design: A case study from Norway. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 43, 300-314.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2014.05.004
BOROWSKY, A., SHINAR, D. & PARMET, Y. 2008. Sign location, sign recognition, and driver expectancies. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 11, 459-465.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2008.06.003
BOSTRÖM, L. & LARSEN, C. K. 2006. Concrete for Tunnel Linings Exposed to Severe Fire Exposure. Fire Technology, 42, 351-362.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-006-0006-0
BU, R., YANG, H., XIE, Y., ZHAO, W., FAN, C., GUO, Z. & ZHOU, Y. 2022. Application of the high-pressure water mist system in a railway tunnel rescue station. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 35.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2022.101467
CARBONI, M., PIO, G., MOCELLIN, P., PILO, F., VIANELLO, C., RUSSO, P., MASCHIO, G. & SALZANO, E. 2022. Experimental and numerical characterization of hydrogen jet fires. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 47, 21883-21896.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.05.010
CASSE, C. & CAROLY, S. 2019. Analysis of critical incidents in tunnels to improve learning from experience. Safety Science, 116, 222-230.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2019.03.015
CHANG, H. P., HO, S. P., CHEN, C. S. & CHIEN, S. W. 2017. Performance of a spray system in a full-scale tunnel fire test. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 67, 167- 174.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2017.04.022
CHEONG, M., CHEONG, W., LEONG, K., LEMAIRE, A. & NOORDIJK, L. 2014. Heat Release Rate of Heavy Goods Vehicle Fire in Tunnels with Fixed Water Based Fire-Fighting System. Fire Technology, 50.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-013-0367-0
CHEONG, M., CHEONG, W., LEONG, K., NOORDIJK, L., TARADA, F. & LEMAIRE, A. 2013. Heat Release Rates of Heavy Goods Vehicle Fires in Tunnels. 15th International Symposium on Aerodynamics, Ventilation & Fire in Tunnels. Barcelona, Spain.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-013-0367-0
CIRCULAIRE INTERMINISTÉRIELLE N° 2000-63 2000. Circulaire Interministerielle N°2000- 63 du 25 août 2000 relative à la sécurité dans les tunnels du réseau routier national. French Ministry of interior and Ministry of transport equipement and housing.
CIRRONE, D., SHENTSOV, V., KASHKAROV, S., DADASHZADEH, M., MAKAROV, D. & MOLKOV, V. 2019. Report on hydrogen hazards and risks in tunnels and similar confined spaces (Deliverable 1.2). HyTunnel-CS (https://hytunnel.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/HyTunnel-CS_D1.2_Risks-and-Hazards.pdf).
COSMA, G., RONCHI, E. & NILSSON, D. 2016. Way-finding lighting systems for rail tunnel evacuation: A virtual reality experiment with Oculus Rift. Journal of Transportation Safety & Security, 8, 101-117.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19439962.2015.1046621
DINGUS, T. A., GUO, F., LEE, S., ANTIN, J. F., PEREZ, M., BUCHANAN-KING, M. & HANKEY, J. 2016. Driver crash risk factors and prevalence evaluation using naturalistic driving data. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 2636-2641.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1513271113
DMP 2013. Refuge chambers in underground mines - guideline. Department of Mines and Petroleum, Resources Safety, Department of Mines and Petroleum, Western Australia.
DONDI, G., VIGNALI, V., LANTIERI, C. & MANGANELLI, G. 2012. Effects of Flickering Seizures on Road Drivers and Passengers. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 53, 711-720.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.921
DORSZ, A. & LEWANDOWSKI, M. 2022. Analysis of Fire Hazards Associated with the Operation of Electric Vehicles in Enclosed Structures. ENERGIES, 15.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010011
DUFFÉ, P. & MAREC, M. 1999. Report of the Task Force for Technical Investigation of the 24 March 1999 Fire in the Mont Blanc Vehicular Tunnel (in French). French minister of the Interior and Ministry of Equipement, Transportation and Housing.
EC-COM 1997. Promoting road safety in the EU : The programme for 1997-2001. Brussels, Belgium: Commission of the European communities.
EC-COM 2001. European transport policy for 2010: time to decide, COM(2001) 370 final. Commision of the European communities (EC-COM).
EC-COM 2003. Proposal for a directive of the european parliament and of the counsil on minimum safety requirements for tunnels in the Trans-European Road Network. Commision of the European communities (EC-COM).
EC 2001. Presidency conclusions - European council meeting in Laeken 14 and 15 December 2001. Commision of the European communities (EC).
EFTA 2023. EEA AGREEMENT Annex XIII Transport. Brussels, Belgium: EFTA Surveillance Authority.
EHRHART, B. D., BROOKS, D. M., MUNA, A. B. & LAFLEUR, C. B. 2020. Risk Assessment of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles in Tunnels. Fire Technology, 56, 891-912.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-019-00910-z
ENGLISH, G. 2016. Tunnel Operations, Maintenance, Inspection, and Evaluation Manual, 2015: Practical Implications for Fire Protection and Life Safety Systems. Transportation Research Record, 2592, 162-168.
https://doi.org/10.3141/2592-18
ESA 2020. Letter of formal notice to Iceland concerning Minimum safety requirements for tunnels in the Trans-European Road Network. Brussels, Belgium: EFTA Surveillance Authority.
ESA 2021. Reasoned opinion - Delivered in accordance with Article 31 of the Agreement between the EFTA States on the Establishment of a Surveillance Authority and a Court of Justice concerning Norway's breach of minimum safety requirements for tunnels in the Trans-European Road Network. EFTA Surveilance Authority,.
EU-DIRECTIVE 2004/54/EC 2004. Directive 2004/54/EC of the European parliament and of the council of 29 April 2004 - on minimum safety requirements for tunnels in the trans-European road network. European Parliament and the Council of the European Union.
FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION - OFFICE OF BRIGDES AND STRUCTURES 2015. Tunnel Operations, Maintenance, Inspection, and Evaluation (TOMIE) Manual. U.S. Department of Transportation.
FEMA 2006. Design Guidance for Shelters and Safe Rooms, FEMA 453. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).
FRANTZICH, H., NILSSON, D. & RØD, K. 2016a. Evacuation and technical installations in single tube road tunnels (in Swedish). Lund University.
FRANTZICH, H., NILSSON, D. & RØD, S. K. 2016b. Utrymning och tekniska installationer i vägtunnlar med dubbelriktad trafik (Report 3199). Department of Fire Safety Engineering, Lund University, Sweden.
FRØHOLM, G. 1970. Med veg skal landet byggjast : med bru og tunnel skal vegen kortast og tryggjast (in Norwegian), Oslo, Norway, Frøholm-forlaget (own publishing company).
FRØHOLM, G. 1971. Med veg skal Europa samlast : Frå Atlanterhavet til Svartehavet (in Norwegian), Oslo, Norway, Frøholm-forlaget (own publishing company).
FRØHOLM, G. 1972. Med veg skal verda vinnast : i Amerika, Afrika, Asia og Europa (in Norwegian), Oslo, Norway, Frøholm-forlaget (own publishing company).
GANDHI, M. I. & SARRACK, A. G. 2016. Toxic gas detection in ammonia plants for shelter-in- place. Ammonia Plant Safety and Related Facilities, 2016 January, 151-159.
GEHANDLER, J., KARLSSON, P. & VYLUND, L. 2016. Risks with new energy carriers i road tunnels and underground parking garage (in Swedish). Borås, Sweden: SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden.
GEHANDLER, J. & LÖNNERMARK, A. 2019. CNG vehicle containers exposed to local fires. Borås, Sweden: RISE Research Institutes of Sweden.
GOLUBKOV, A. W., SCHEIKL, S., PLANTEU, R., VOITIC, G., WILTSCHE, H., STANGL, C., FAULER, G., THALER, A. & HACKER, V. 2015. Thermal runaway of commercial 18650 Li-ion batteries with LFP and NCA cathodes - Impact of state of charge and overcharge. RSC Advances, 5, 57171-57186.
https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RA05897J
GRØNHAUG, A. 1990. Tysk forskningsprosjekt til Norge: Utfører fuliskala brannforsøk i Repparfjord tunnel (in Norwegian). Våre Vegar, 17. årg., no. 8/90. Norwegian Public Roads Directorate.
GU, X., ZHANG, J., PAN, Y., NI, Y., MA, C., ZHOU, W. & WANG, Y. 2020. Hazard analysis on tunnel hydrogen jet fire based on CFD simulation of temperature field and concentration field. Safety Science, 122, N.PAG-N.PAG.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2019.104532
GÖRAS, T., PERSSON, B., ARVIDSON, M. & BOSTRÖM, L. 2001. Sektionering av stora lokaler (in Swedish). Borås, Sweden: SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute.
HEDEMAN, A. 2009. Escape is the only alternative (in Norwegian). Aftenposten .
HELD, M., TUCHSCHMID, M., ZENNEGG, M., FIGI, R., SCHREINER, C., MELLERT, L. D., WELTE, U., KOMPATSCHER, M., HERMANN, M. & NACHEF, L. 2022. Thermal runaway and fire of electric vehicle lithium-ion battery and contamination of infrastructure facility. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 165, N.PAG-N.PAG.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112474
HENKE, A. & GAGLIARDI, M. 2004. The 2001 Gotthard road tunnel fire. Tunnel Management International, 7, 33-39.
HIGGINGS, L., CARLSON, P., MILES, J., ROZYCKIE, S., AVERSO, M., GRAHAM, D., SEIP, B. & JENSSEN, G. 2015a. Emergency Exit Signs and Marking Systems for Highway Tunnels. Transportation Research Board (TRB) and National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP).
HIGGINGS, L., CARLSON, P., MILES, J., ROZYCKIE, S., AVERSO, M., GRAHAM, D., SEIP, B. & JENSSEN, G. 2015b. Proposed Guidelines for Emergency Exit Signs and Marking Systems for Highway Tunnels. Transportation Research Board (TRB) and National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP).
HOLLNAGEL, E., WOODS, D. D. & LEVESON, N. 2006. Resilience Engineering : Concepts and Precepts, Abingdon, Oxon, GBR, Ashgate Publishing, Limited.
HVOSLEF, H. 1991. Traffic safety in road tunnels (in Norwegian) Norwegian Public Roads Administration.
HAACK, A. 1998. Fire protection in traffic tunnels: General aspects and results of the EUREKA project. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 13, 377-381.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0886-7798(98)00080-7
ILKHANI, I., YAZDANPANAH, M. & DEHGHANBANADAKI, A. 2023. Analysis of drivers' preferences toward content and message format of variable message signs during tunnel emergency evacuation: A case study of Niayesh tunnel in Tehran. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 93.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103744
INFORMANT 1. 2022. RE: Conversation about shelters in road tunnels, December 1, 2022.
INFORMANT 2. 2023. RE: Email communication regarding shelters in road tunnels.
INGASON, H. 2003. Fire Development in Catastrophic Tunnel Fires (CTF). In: INGASON, H. (ed.) International Symposium on Catastrofic Tunnel Fire (CTF). Borås, Sweden: SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute.
INGASON, H. & LI, Y. Z. 2014. Technical trade-offs using fixed fire fighting systems. Seventh International Conference on Tunnel Safety and Ventilation. Graz, Austria.
INGASON, H. & LI, Y. Z. 2019. Large scale tunnel fire tests with different types of large droplet fixed fire fighting systems. Fire Safety Journal, 107, 29-43.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2019.04.007
INGASON, H., LI, Y. Z., APPEL, G., LUNDSTRÖM, U. & BECKER, C. 2016. Large Scale Tunnel Fire Tests with Large Droplet Water-Based Fixed Fire Fighting System. Fire Technology, 52, 1539-1558.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-015-0479-9
INGASON, H., LI, Y. Z. & LÖNNERMARK, A. 2015. Tunnel Fire Dynamics , Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2199-7
INGASON, H. & LÖNNERMARK, A. 2003. Large-Scale Fire Tests in the Runehamar tunnel - Heat Release Rate (HRR). International Symposium on Catastrophic Tunnel Fires (CTF 2003). Borås, Sweden: Borås, Sweden: RISE Research Institutes of Sweden.
INGASON, H., LÖNNERMARK, A. & LI, Y. Z. 2011. Runehamar Tunnel Fire Tests. SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden.
ITA 2018. Guidelines for the provision of refuge chambers in tunnels under construction. International Tunnelling and Underground Space Association (ITA).
JENSSEN, G., SKJERMO, J., HOEM, Å. S., ARNESEN, P. & NILSSON, D. 2018. Simulation of the evacuation in a tunnel. SINTEF.
JENSSEN, G., SKJERMO, J., MOSCOSO, C., HOEM, Å. S., ARNESEN, P., SÖDERSTEN, C. & KARLSSON, H. 2020. Simulation of stay in rescue room. SINTEF.
JENSSEN, G. D. & MOSCOSO, C. 2021. Kjøring mot rødt stoppblinksignal (in Norwegian). Trondheim, Norway.
JENSSEN, G. D., ROCHE-CERASI, I., HOEM, Å. S. & GRØV, E. 2017. Literature survey - Self rescue in road tunnels Experiences with the use of shelters (in Norwegian). SINTEF.
JINDAL, A. K. & MUKHERJI, S. 2005. World report on road traffic injury prevention. Medical Journal Armed Forces India, 61, 91.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0377-1237(05)80135-2
KHADEMI, N., BJELLAND, H., NILSSON, E. G. & BOLETSIS, C. 2023. RiskTUN: An ICT-based Concept for a Risk-aware Decision Support System for Tunnel Safety. 10th International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security (ISTSS 2023). Stavanger, Norway: Borås, Sweden: RISE Research Institutes of Sweden.
KIM, J. & GUSTAFSON-PEARCE, O. 2016. A pilot study into users' anxiety in the London Underground network environments (for the purpose of re-designing safety information). Proceedings of NordDesign, NordDesign 2016, 1.
KINATEDER, M., GROMER, D., GAST, P., BULD, S., MÜLLER, M., JOST, M., NEHFISCHER, M., MÜHLBERGER, A. & PAULI, P. 2015. The effect of dangerous goods transporters on hazard perception and evacuation behavior - A virtual reality experiment on tunnel emergencies. Fire Safety Journal, 78, 24-30.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2015.07.002
KINATEDER, M., PAULI, P., MÜLLER, M., KRIEGER, J., HEIMBECHER, F., RÖNNAU, I., BERGERHAUSEN, U., VOLLMANN, G., VOGT, P. & MÜHLBERGER, A. 2013. Human behaviour in severe tunnel accidents: Effects of information and behavioural training. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 17, 20-32.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2012.09.001
KIRYTOPOULOS, K., KAZARAS, K., PAPAPAVLOU, P., NTZEREMES, P. & TATSIOPOULOS, I. 2017. Exploring driving habits and safety critical behavioural intentions among road tunnel users: A questionnaire survey in Greece. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 63, 244-251.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2016.12.002
KIRYTOPOULOS, K., MOURELATOS, A., CHATZISTELIOS, G., NTZEREMES, P. & KONSTANTINIDOU, M. Employing serious games to increase safety in driving through road tunnels. Proceedings of the 31st European Safety and Reliability Conference, ESREL 2021, 2021. 1069-1075.
https://doi.org/10.3850/978-981-18-2016-8_530-cd
KIRYTOPOULOS, K., MOURELATOS, A., CHATZISTELIOS, G., NTZEREMES, P. & KONSTANTINIDOU, M. 2023. A virtual reality instrument to raise drivers' awareness on safer driving through road tunnels. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part O: Journal of Risk and Reliability .
https://doi.org/10.1177/1748006X231175719
KIRYTOPOULOS, K., NTZEREMES, P., CHATZISTELIOS, G., SARAMOURTSIS, A., TSANTSANOGLOU, A. & KONSTANTINIDOU, M. How much do Greek drivers know about safety when driving through road tunnels? In: BARALDI, P., DI MAIO, F. & ZIO, E., eds. 30th European Safety and Reliability Conference (ESREL 2020) and 15th Probabilistic Safety Assessment and Management Conference (PSAM 2020), 2020. 2578-2584.
https://doi.org/10.3850/978-981-14-8593-0_4108-cd
KJOS, J. W., BJELLAND, H., NJÅ, O., JOHANSEN, I. L. & RØD, S. K. 2023. Evacuation shelters in single-tube road tunnels - From a poor reputation to emerging interest. In: LI, Y. Z., LÖNNERMARK, A., GEHANDLER, J. & INGASON, H. (eds.) Proceedings from the Tenth International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security (ISTSS). Stavanger, Norway.
KNAPSTAD, T. Unpublished. Road Tunnel Safety - Communicating Efforts and Tunnel Users' Learning in Emergencies. PhD thesis manuscript, University of Stavanger (UiS).
KONSTANTINIDOU, M., KAZARAS, K. & KIRYTOPOULOS, K. Human, Organizational Factors and Mental Workload for Tunnel Operators in Emergency Situations. Communications in Computer and Information Science, 2020. 175-191.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62302-9_11
KUDRIAKOV, S., STUDER, E., BERNARD-MICHEL, G., BOUIX, D., DOMERGUE, L., FORERO, D., GUEGUEN, H., LEDIER, C., MANICARDI, P., MARTIN, M. & SAUZEDDE, F. 2022. Full-scale tunnel experiments: Blast wave and fireball evolution following hydrogen tank rupture. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 47, 18911-18933.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.04.037
KULKARNI, S. S. & AGASHE, S. D. Study of Intelligent Evacuation Systems of High-Rise Buildings in India-a review. International Conference on Computing, Analytics and Security Trends, CAST 2016, 2017. 190-194.
https://doi.org/10.1109/CAST.2016.7914964
KURAN, C. H. A., NEWNAM, S. & BEANLAND, V. 2022. Adaptive non-conform behaviour in accident investigations in the road based heavy goods transport sector. Safety Science, 146.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105539
KURAN, C. H. A., NJÅ, O. & BRAUT, G. S. 2023. Conceptualizing the bending and breaking of rules in the heavy goods transport sector. Safety Science, 166.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2023.106235
LACROIX, D. 2001. The Mont Blanc Tunnel Fire, What happened and what has been learned. Fourth International Conference on Safety in Road and Rail Tunnels. 2001. Madrid, Spain.
LACROIX, D. 2008. Managing Road Tunnel Safety: Today's Challenge. Third International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security (ISTSS 2008). Stockholm, Sweden: Borås, Sweden: RISE Research Institutes of Sweden. LANDROVER CLUB. 2002. The Mont Blanc Disaster - 41 deaths, 52 hours burning. Available: http://www.landroverclub.net/Club/HTML/MontBlanc.htm [Accessed 12.07.2017].
LARSEN, A. K. 2023. Presentation : Evacuation shelters in E134 Oslofjordtunnel (in Norwegian). Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA).
LEE, J., KIRYTOPOULOS, K., PERVEZ, A. & HUANG, H. 2022. Understanding drivers' awareness, habits and intentions inside road tunnels for effective safety policies. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 172.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2022.106690
LEVESON, N. & THOMAS, J. 2018. STPA Handbook. MIT. LEVESON, N. G. 2011. Engineering a Safer World: Systems Thinking Applied to Safety , The MIT Press.
https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/8179.001.0001
LI-YU, C., SEIKE, M., KAWABATA, N., HASEGAWA, M., CHIEN, S. & SHEN, T. 2022. Walking speed probability distribution in smoke-filled tunnel experiments. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers, 45, 661-668.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02533839.2022.2126402
LI, J., LI, Y. F., BI, Q., LI, Y., CHOW, W. K., CHENG, C. H., TO, C. W. & CHOW, C. L. 2019. Performance evaluation on fixed water-based firefighting system in suppressing large fire in urban tunnels. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 84, 56-69.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2018.10.020
LI, Y., XIAO, J., ZHANG, H., BREITUNG, W., TRAVIS, J., KUZNETSOV, M. & JORDAN, T. 2021a. Numerical analysis of hydrogen release, dispersion and combustion in a tunnel with fuel cell vehicles using all-speed CFD code GASFLOW-MPI. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 46, 12474-12486.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.09.063
LI, Y. Z. 2019. Study of fire and explosion hazards of alternative fuel vehicles in tunnels. Fire Safety Journal, 110, 102871.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2019.102871
LI, Y. Z. & INGASON, H. 2013. Model scale tunnel fire tests with automatic sprinkler. Fire Safety Journal, 61, 298-313.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2013.09.024
LI, Z., XING, G., ZHAO, X. & LI, H. 2021b. Impact of the connected vehicle environment on tunnel entrance zone. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 157.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2021.106145
LIN, C. L. & CHIEN, C. F. 2021. Lessons learned from critical accidental fires in tunnels. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 113.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2021.103944
LOWELL, D. 2013. Natural Gas Systems: Suggested Changes to Truck and Motorcoach Regulations and Inspection Procedures. U.S. Department of Transportation.
LUNDQVIST, A. 1991. Brandsektionering genom vattenbegjutning - en experimentell studie (in Swedish). Borås, Sweden: SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute.
LUNDSTRÖM, U. 2023. Development of the Swedish road tunnel safety concept. 10th International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security (ISTSS 2023). Stavanger, Norway: Borås, Sweden: RISE Research Institutes of Sweden.
LÖNNERMARK, A. 2010. New Energy Carriers in Tunnels. Fourth International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security (ISTSS 2010). Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Borås, Sweden: RISE Research Institutes of Sweden.
LÖNNERMARK, A. & INGASON, H. 2006. Fire Spread and Flame Length in Large-Scale Tunnel Fires. Fire Technology, 42, 283-302. MA, Z., SHAO, C. & ZHANG, S. 2009. Characteristics of traffic accidents in Chinese freeway tunnels. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 24, 350-355.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-006-7508-7
MACGREGOR, D. 1991. Worry Over Technological Activities and Life Concerns. Risk Analysis,11, 315-324.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1991.tb00607.x
MACHNIEWSKI, P. & MOLGA, E. 2022. CFD analysis of large-scale hydrogen detonation and blast wave overpressure in partially confined spaces. Process Safety & Environmental Protection: Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers Part B, 158, 537-546.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2021.12.032
MALAKHOV, A. A., AVDEENKOV, A. V., DU TOIT, M. H. & BESSARABOV, D. G. 2020. CFD simulation and experimental study of a hydrogen leak in a semi-closed space with the purpose of risk mitigation. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 45, 9231-9240.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.01.035
MAMAT, A. F., MOHD HUSSAIN, M. R., TUKIMAN, I., MUDA, R. S. & RABE, N. S. 2019. Safe havens and evacuation routes due to dam disaster. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering, 8, 403-406.
MANNAN, M. S. & KILPATRICK, D. L. 2000. The Pros and Cons of Shelter-in-Place. Process Safety Progress, 19, 210-218.
https://doi.org/10.1002/prs.680190406
MARGOLIS, K. A., WESTERMAN, C. Y. K. & KOWALSKI-TRAKOFLER, K. M. 2011. Underground mine Refuge Chamber Expectations Training: Program development and evaluation. Safety Science, 49, 522-530.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2010.12.008
MFA 2006. St.prp. nr. 63 (2005-2006) Om samtykke til godkjenning av avgjerd i EØS-komiteen nr. 10/2006 av 27. januar 2006 om innlemming i EØS-avtala av direktiv 2004/54/EF om minstekrav til tryggleik i tunnelar i det transeuropeiske vegnettet (in Norwegian). Oslo, Norway: Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
MILLER, E. E. & BOYLE, L. N. 2015. Driver Behavior in Road Tunnels Association with Driver Stress and Performance. TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD, 60-67.
https://doi.org/10.3141/2518-08
MJPS 2002. Regulation on the organization and dimensioning of the fire service (in Norwegian). FOR-2002-06-26-729. Oslo, Norway: Ministry of Justice and Public Security.
MSB 2022. VÄGLEDNING : Räddningsinsatser vid händelser med gasdrivna fordon (in Swedish). Karlstad, Sweden: Myndigheten för samhällsskydd och beredskap (MSB).
MTLG 2020. Letter from Iceland's Ministry of Transport and Local Government to EFTA Surveillance Authority, October 28, 2020. Reykjavik, Iceland: Ministry of Transport and Local Government, Iceland.
NFF 2021. Håndbok nr. 12 : Redningskammer for underjordsdrift (in Norwegian). Norsk Forening for Fjellsprengningsteknikk (NFF). NILSSON, D. Interaction between people and evacuation systems in tunnels. In: LÖNNERMARK, A. & INGASON, H., eds. Internation Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security, 2014 Marseille, France. SP Technical Reserach Institute of Sweden.
NJÅ, O. 2007. Helhetlig ROS-analyse av Oslopakke 3. - Tunnelsystemenes effekt på sikkerhet, beredskap og frykt (in Norwegian). Universitet i Stavanger (UiS).
NJÅ, O. 2016. Self evacuation from fires in long subsea road tunnels: the case of the Oslofjord tunnel fire in 2011. 7th International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security (ISTSS 2016). Montreal, Canada.
NJÅ, O. 2017a. Feasibility study - Rescue rooms (in Norwegian) International Research Institute of Stavanger (IRIS).
NJÅ, O. 2017b. Feasibility study - Roadrunner (in Norwegian). Stavanger, Norway: International Research Institute of Stavanger (IRIS).
NJÅ, O. 2023. Why is the Tunnel Fire Safety Competence Situation so Fragmented? The Need for a Tunnel Safety Study Programme. 10th International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security (ISTSS 2023). Stavanger, Norway.
NJÅ, O. & KURAN, C. 2014. Experiences from the rescue work and self-rescue during the fire in the Oslofjord tunnel on 23 June 2011 (in Norwegian). Stavanger, Norway: International Research Institute of Stavanger (IRIS).
NJÅ, O. & SVELA, M. 2018. A review of competencies in tunnel fire response seen from the first responders' perspectives. Fire Safety Journal, 97, 137-145.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2017.05.005
NJÅ, O., VASTVEIT, K. R., ABRAHAMSEN, E. B. & ERIKSSON, K. 2013. Evaluation of risk assessments in the Norwegian Public Road Authorities: Decision support and a learning tool (in Norwegian). Stavanger: International Research Institute of Stavanger (IRIS).
NJÅ, Å. 2019. Modelling fire occurrences in heavy goods vehicles in Norwegian road tunnels. M.Sc., University of Stavanger.
NJÅ, Å., KVALØY, J. T. & NJÅ, O. 2022. Modelling fire occurrences in heavy goods vehicles in road tunnels. Fire Safety Journal, 127.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2021.103508
NPRA 2012. Suggest a second tube for the Oslofjord tunnel [Press release]. NPRA 2020a. FoU prosjektet "Safety management in road tunnels: Utredning om bruk av evakueringsrom i lange ettløps vegtunneler for midlertidig opphold som del av assistert redning (in Norwegian). Oslo, Norway.
NPRA 2020b. Utredning om bruk av tilfluktsrom uten utgang til det fri i lange ettløps vegtunneler for midlertidig opphold som del av assistert redning (in Norwegian). Oslo, Norway: Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA).
NPRA 2022. Handbook N500 - Road tunnels (in Norwegian). Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA).
NPRA 2023a. NPRA NEWS : -En gledens dag for E134 Oslofjordforbindelsen byggetrinn 2 (in Norwegian). Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA).
NPRA 2023b. Trygg Tunnel. Oslo, Norway: Norwegian Public Roads Administration.
NSIA 2013. Report on a fire in an HGV on the rv 23, Oslofjord tunnel 23. juni 2011 (in Norwegian). Norwegian Safety Investigation Authority (NSIA).
NSIA 2015. Report on a fire in an HGV on the E16 in the Gudvanga tunnel in Aurland 5th of august 2013 (in Norwegian). Norwegian Safety Investigation Authority (NSIA).
NSIA 2016a. Report on a fire in a tank trailer in the Skatestraum tunnel in Sogn og Fjordane 15th of juli 2015 (in Norwegian). Norwegian Safety Investigation Authority (NSIA).
NSIA 2016b. Report on bus fire in the Gudvanga tunnel on the E16 in Aurland, 11 august 2015 (in Norwegian). Norwegian Safety Investigation Authority (NSIA).
NSIA 2018. Report on a fire in an HGV on the Rv 23, Oslofjord tunnel 5th of may 2017 (in Norwegian). Norwegian Safety Investigation Authority (NSIA).
NVDB. 2022. National road database (NVDB) [Online]. Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA). Available: https://vegkart.atlas.vegvesen.no/#kartlag:geodata/@600000,7225000,3 [Accessed January 2022].
NÆVESTAD, T. O. & BLOM, J. 2023. Vehicle fires in Norwegian road tunnels 2008-2021 (in Norwegian). Institute of Transport Economics - Norwegian Centre for Transport Research (ITE),.
OAGN 2016. OAGN's investigation about the authorities' work of increasing safety in road tunnels (in Norwegian). Oslo: Office of the Auditor General of Norway (OAGN).
OECD/PIARC 2001. Safety in Tunnels : Transport of dangerous goods through road tunnels. Paris, France: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
OKSTAD, E. H., JENSSEN, G. D. & FOSS, T. 2018. Risikoanalyse, ÅDT 4000/8000 : Rømningstunnel vs. tilleggsinstallasjoner ut over krav (in Norwegian). Trondheim, Norway.
PAPAIOANNOU, P. & GEORGOU, G. 2003. Human Behaviour in Tunnel Accidents and Incidents: End-users, Operators and Response Teams - WP 3 Human response, deliverable 3.2. UPTUN.
PEÑA-GARCÍA, A. 2018. The impact of lighting on drivers well-being and safety in very long underground roads: New challenges for new infrastructures. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 80, 38-43.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2018.06.005
PERVEZ, A., HUANG, H., HAN, C., WANG, J. & LI, Y. 2020. Revisiting freeway single tunnel crash characteristics analysis: A six-zone analytic approach. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 142, 105542.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2020.105542
PERZ, M., SEKULOVSKI, D., VOGELS, I. & HEYNDERICKX, I. 2017. Quantifying the Visibility of Periodic Flicker. LEUKOS, 13, 127-142.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15502724.2016.1269607
PIARC 1999. Fire and smoke control in road tunnels. PIARC Committee on Road Tunnels (C5). PIARC 2008a. Human factors and road tunnel safety regarding users. PIARC Technical Committee C3.3 Road Tunnel Operations.
PIARC 2008b. Human factors guideline for safer road infrastructure. PIARC Technical Committee C3.1 Road Safety.
PIARC 2016. Strategic plan 2016-2019. PIARC - World road association.
PIERCE, J. R. & WEST, T. A. 2017. Helping nursing Homes shelter-in-place. Journal of Emergency Management, 15, 341-342.
https://doi.org/10.5055/jem.2017.0342
PORZYCKI, J., SCHMIDT-POLOŃCZYK, N. & WĄS, J. 2018. Pedestrian behavior during evacuation from road tunnel in smoke condition-Empirical results. PLoS ONE, 13.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201732
PRITCHARD, D. K. & RATTIGAN, W. M. 2010. Hazards of liquid hydrogen: Position paper. Derbyshire, UK: Health and Safety Executive (HSE). PROULX, G. 1999. Occupant response during a residential highrise fire. Fire and Materials, 23, 317-323.
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1018(199911/12)23:6<317::AID-FAM705>3.3.CO;2-Q
PSAN 2017. Prinsipper for barrierestyring i petroleumsvirksomheten - Barrierenotat 2017 (in Norwegian). Petroleum Safety Authority Norway.
QIN, P., WANG, M., CHEN, Z., YAN, G., YAN, T., HAN, C., BAO, Y. & WANG, X. 2021. Characteristics of driver fatigue and fatigue-relieving effect of special light belt in extra-long highway tunnel: A real-road driving study. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 114, 103990.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2021.103990
RAMBØLL 2022. FV457 - Flekkerøytunnelen : Branteknisk vurdering av rom for assistert redning (in Norwegian). Rambøll.
RASMUSSEN, J. 1987. Information Processing and Human-Machine Interaction. An Approach to Cognitive Engineering , North-Holland.
RAZA, H. & LI, S. The impact of battery electric bus fire on road tunnel. Expanding Underground - Knowledge and Passion to Make a Positive Impact on the World- Proceedings of the ITA-AITES World Tunnel Congress, WTC 2023, 2023. 3280-3288.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003348030-397
RONCHI, E., FRIDOLF, K., FRANTZICH, H., NILSSON, D., WALTER, A. L. & MODIG, H. 2018. A tunnel evacuation experiment on movement speed and exit choice in smoke. Fire Safety Journal, 97, 126-136.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2017.06.002
RONCHI, E., NILSSON, D., KOJIĆ, S., ERIKSSON, J., LOVREGLIO, R., MODIG, H. & WALTER, A. L. 2016a. A Virtual Reality Experiment on Flashing Lights at Emergency Exit Portals for Road Tunnel Evacuation. Fire Technology, 52, 623-647.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-015-0462-5
RONCHI, E., NILSSON, D., MODIG, H. & WALTER, A. L. 2016b. Variable Message Signs for road tunnel emergency evacuations. Applied Ergonomics, 52, 253-264.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2015.07.025
RSA 2018a. Beredskap i Frogntunnelen (in Norwegian). Voss, Norway: Road Supervisory Authority.
RSA 2018b. Beredskap i Røstetunnelen (in Norwegian). Voss, Norway: Road Supervisory Authority.
RSA 2018c. Beredskap i Øyertunnelen (in Norwegian). Voss, Norway: Road Supervisory Authority.
RØD, S. K., BOTAN, C. & HOLEN, A. 2012. Risk communication and worried publics in an imminent rockslide and tsunami situation. Journal of Risk Research, 15, 645-654.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2011.652650
SAFETEC 2011. Risikoanalyse av Oslofjordtunnelen med omkjøringsveger (in Norwegian). Safetec Nordic AS.
SAINT-GOBAIN 2023. Leca : Teknisk håndbok 2023 - Materialegenskaper, Prosjektering og utførelse. Dimensjonering, Veggløsninger (in Norwegian). Saint-Gobain Byggevarer AS.
SCHEFFLER, G. W., MCCLORY, M., VEENSTRA, M., KINOSHITA, N., FUKUMOTO, H., CHANG, T. W.-L., HALBERSTADT, M. L., GAMBONE, L. & SAGE, G. 2011. Establishing localized fire test methods and progressing safety standards for FCVs and hydrogen vehciles. SAE 2011 World Congress & Exhibition. Detroit Michigan, United States.
https://doi.org/10.4271/2011-01-0251
SCHMIDT-POLOŃCZYK, N. 2023. Subjective individuals' perception during evacuation in road tunnels: Post-experiment survey results. PLoS ONE, 18.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283461
SCHMIDT-POLOŃCZYK, N., WĄS, J. & PORZYCKI, J. 2021. What is the knowledge of evacuation procedures in road tunnels? Survey results of users in Poland. Buildings, 11.
https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11040146
SD 2008. Tunnelsikkerhetsdirektivet (in Norwegian). Oslo, Norway: Ministry of Transport.
SEIKE, M., KAWABATA, N. & HASEGAWA, M. 2017. Evacuation speed in full-scale darkened tunnel filled with smoke. FIRE SAFETY JOURNAL, 91, 901-907.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2017.04.034
SEIKE, M., KAWABATA, N., HASEGAWA, M., TSUJI, C., HIGASHIDA, H. & YUHI, T. 2021. Experimental Attempt on Walking Behavior and Stress Assessment in a Completely Darkened Tunnel. Infrastructures, 6, 75.
https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures6050075
SFTRF. 2023. The second tube [Online]. SFTRF : Fréjus tunnel French motorway company. Available: Retrieved from https://www.sftrf.fr/uk/il4-sftrf_p55-the-second-tube.aspx [Accessed August 15 2023].
SHIMOJO, A., TAKAGI, H. & ONUMA, H. A simulation study of driving performance in long tunnel. Pacific Rim TransTech Conference. 1995 Vehicle Navigation and Information Systems Conference Proceedings. 6th International VNIS. A Ride into the Future, 30 July-2 Aug. 1995 1995. 96-103.
SNL 2023. Evakuering i Store norske leksikon på snl.no (in Norwegian). Retrieved September 27, 2023 from https://snl.no/evakuering. Store norske leksikon (2005 - 2007).
SOUTH, B. C., HERRIES, P. E. & BYRD, W. R. Shelter in place: the technical basis for its use in emergency planning. Proceedings of the SPE/EPA Exploration and Production Environmental Conference, 1993. 379-388.
https://doi.org/10.2523/25980-MS
SP (ed.) 1994. Proceedings of the International Conference on Fires in Tunnels, Borås, Sweden. STORM, A. & CELANDER, E. S. 2022. Field evacuation experiment in a long inclined tunnel. Fire Safety Journal, 132, 103640.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2022.103640
STRANDE, M. 2009. Unngikk storbrann (in Norwegian). Teknisk Ukeblad (TU) .
STURM, P., FÖßLEITNER, P., FRUHWIRT, D., GALLER, R., WENIGHOFER, R., HEINDL, S. F., KRAUSBAR, S. & HEGER, O. 2022. Fire tests with lithium-ion battery electric vehicles in road tunnels. Fire Safety Journal, 134, N.PAG-N.PAG.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2022.103695
SVELA, M. & NJÅ, O. 2017. Systems engineering to address learning of road tunnel fire safety. In: ČEPIN, M. & BRIŠ, R. (eds.) Safety and Reliability - Theory and Applications. London, UK: Taylor and Francis Group.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315210469-456
SØVIK, A. P. & HENNING, J. E. 2015. Measures to improve fire safety in vulnerable road tunnels - Safety management of road tunnels (in Norwegian). Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA).
THAMM, B. The new EU directive on road tunnel safety. In: INGASON, H., ed. International Symposium on Catastrophic Tunnel Fires (CFT), 2003 Borås, Sweden. SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute, 19-30.
THE FIRE AND RESCUE SERVICE REGULATIONS 2022. Regulation on the organisation, staffing and equipment of the fire and rescue service and the emergency response centres (in Norwegian). Oslo, Norway: Ministry of Justice and Emergency Preparedness.
TIME, I. & NJÅ, O. Approaching tunnel safety from a system safety perspective. Safety and Reliability - Theory and Applications - Proceedings of the 27th European Safety and Reliability Conference, ESREL 2017, 2017. 1545-1552.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315210469-194
TUNNEL SAFETY REGULATIONS 2007. Regulations on minimum safety requirements for certain road tunnels (in Norwegian). Norwegian Ministery of Transportation.
TUNNEL SAFETY REGULATIONS FOR COUNTY ROADS 2015. Regulations on minimum safety requirements for certain tunnels on the County road network and city roads in Oslo (in Norwegian). Norwegian Ministery of Transportation. UNECE 2001. Recommendations of the group of experts on safety in road tunnels - Final report. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).
VATSVÅG, N. & OLSEN, E. 2017. A study of determinants of perceived tunnel safety among Norwegian road users. The 2nd International Conference on Engineering Sciences and Technologies.
https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315210469-35
VERWEY, W. B. 1995. Effects of tunnel entrances on drivers' physiological condition and performance. An explorative study. TNO Human Factors Research Institute. VOELTZEL, A. & DIX, A. 2004. A comparative analysis of the Mont Blanc, Tauern and Gotthard tunnel fires. Routes and roads : Special issue on Tunnels (no. 324), 2004.
VAA, T., ASSUM, T., ULLEBERG, P. & VEISTEN, K. 2004. Effects of information campaigns on behaviour and road accidents - conditions, evaluation and costeffectiveness. Oslo, Norway: Institute of Transport Economics. WANG, B. 2023. Presentation : Periodiske inspeksjoner (in Norwegian). Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA), Nasjonalt Tunnelforvalterforum 2023.
WANG, J. H., COLLYER, C. E. & YANG, C. M. 2006. Enhancing Motorist Understanding of Variable Message Signs. Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering and Department of Psychology, University of Rhode Island. WANG, X., SHEN, L. & SHI, S. 2023a. Evaluation of underground space perception: A user-perspective investigation. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 131, 104822.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2022.104822
WANG, X., WANG, M., JIANG, R., XU, J., LI, B., WANG, X., LEI, M., SU, P., LIU, C., YANG, Q. & YU, J. 2023b. Impact of battery electric vehicles on ventilation design for road tunnels: A review. Tunneling & Underground Space Technology, 134, N.PAG-N.PAG. WEST, A. 2004. The role of PIARC Technical Committee C3.3 in fire safety in tunnels. Routes and roads : Special issue on Tunnels (no. 324), 2004.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2023.105013
WILLMANN, C. & TRUCHOT, B. User's safety in tunnels - Additional risks of new energy carriers vehicles. 18th International Symposium on Aerodynamics, Ventilation and Fire in Tunnels, ISAVFT 2019, 2019. 450-464.
WILLSTRAND, O., BISSCHOP, R., BLOMQVIST, P., TEMPLE, A. & ANDERSON, J. 2020. Toxic Gases from Fire in Electric Vehicles. Borås, Sweden: RISE Research Institutes of Sweden.
WINGFORS, H., MAGNUSSON, R., THORS, L. & THUNELL, M. 2021. Gasformig HF vid brand i trånga utrymmen-risker för hudupptag vid insatser (in Swedish). Karlstad, Sweden: Totalförsvarets forskningsinstitut, Myndigheten för samhällsskydd och beredskap (MSB).
WOODS, D., DEKKER, S., COOK, R. & JOHANNSEN, L. 2010. Behind Human Error , Taylor & Francis Group, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central.
YANG, Y. Q., FENG, Y., EASA, S. M., YANG, X. J., LIU, J. & LIN, W. 2021. Sound Effects on Physiological State and Behavior of Drivers in a Highway Tunnel. FRONTIERS IN PSYCHOLOGY, 12.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.693005
YE, F., QIN, N., LIANG, X., OUYANG, A., QIN, Z. & SU, E. 2021. Analyses of the defects in highway tunnels in China. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 107, 103658.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2020.103658
YERKES, R. M. & DODSON, J. D. 1908. The Relation of Strength of Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit Formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology & Psychology, 18.
https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.920180503
YEUNG, J. S. & WONG, Y. D. 2013. Road traffic accidents in Singapore expressway tunnels. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 38, 534-541.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2013.09.002
ZEERI, M. O., KIRYTOPOULOS, K. & NTZEREMES, P. Exploring Road Tunnel Drivers' Behavior: The case of Greece. In: BEER, M. & ZIO, E., eds. 29th European Safety and Reliability Conference (ESREL2019), 23-26 September 2019 2020 Hannover, Germany. 253-260.
https://doi.org/10.3850/978-981-11-2724-3_0654-cd
ZHAN, Z., JIN, L., CAO, Z., JIAO, S. & BAI, N. Research on mine emergency rescue command system based on chambers. Procedia Engineering, 2012. 710-715.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2012.08.228
ZHANG, J., ZHAO, X., LI, H., QI, J. & XING, G. 2023. Evaluation of the Connected Vehicle Environment Effectiveness at Tunnel Entrance. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 1-11.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TITS.2023.3285475
ZHANG, T., JIN, L., GAO, N. & HUANG, X. Study on building permanent underground refuge chamber in Dayangquan Coal Mine. Progress in Mine Safety Science and Engineering II - Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium of Mine Safety Science and Engineering, 2014. 383-388.
https://doi.org/10.1201/b16606-73
ZHANG, Y. & HUANG, X. 2022. A Review of Tunnel Fire Evacuation Strategies and State-of- the-Art Research in China. Fire Technology .
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-022-01357-5
ZHANG, Y., ZHANG, K., CHEN, L. & MAO, P. 2021a. Experimental study on heat transfer of tunnel fire under the influence of longitudinal ventilation and water mist system. Fire and Materials, 45, 772-778.
https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.2854
ZHANG, Y., ZHU, H., GUO, Q., CARVEL, R. & YAN, Z. 2021b. The effect of technical installations on evacuation performance in urban road tunnel fires. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 107.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2020.103608
ZHANG, Z., WU, H., WANG, K., DAY, R. & YUAN, Y. 2019. Thermal performance of a mine refuge chamber with human body heat sources under ventilation. Applied Thermal Engineering, 162.
