Managing the tension between trust and security: A qualitative study of Norwegian social workers’ experience with preventing radicalisation and violent extremism
Keywords:
social work, social workers, radicalisation, violent extremismSynopsis
In Norway, social workers play a formalised part in the national strategy to prevent radicalisation and violent extremism. This part is played out by engaging with other services and organisations, such as the schools, health services, police and the police security service (PST), in a multiagency cooperation. In addition, social workers engage directly with individuals who have been deemed at risk of further radicalisation and are tasked with providing prevention and follow-up services. Norwegian social workers’ experiences from the work to prevent radicalisation and violent extremism (PVE) have not yet been specifically explored. Thus, this study asks the following main research question: How do Norwegian social workers experience and reflect upon their engagement in preventive work against radicalization and violent extremism?
To answer this, an explorative qualitative study was devised utilizing data from 17 in-depth interviews and two focus-group interviews, analysed through an eclectic theoretical framework to reveal new knowledge. Furthermore, the study seeks to contribute to a theoretical development of social work in a new knowledge and practice field, alongside police and PST. The study finds that Norwegian social workers performing PVE experience tension from conflict expectations. First, Norwegian social workers frame and approach the task of PVE as a social issue and lean on common social worker strategies, and trustbuilding, in particular. This is labelled internal expectations. Next, through cooperation with police and PST, they are expected to participate in a more ‘secretive’ practices, where sensitive information flows more smoothly, without clients’ necessarily being aware of this. Analysis of this cooperation indicates that several types of jurisdictional settlements between social workers and the police, and PST in particular, exits. Of these, subordination to PST raise the most apparent ethical dilemmas for social workers. This practice influence and expectations from policy documents are labelled as external expectations. The conflict occurring between these two expectations create tension in the form of emotional dissonance and person role/conflicts. To cope with these, social workers apply emotion management strategies (internal management) as well as social support from peers and support staff (external management). As an extension of social support, where social workers may become aware of how policy and other professional logics influence their practice field, this thesis suggests that social workers may communicate these challenges to managers and policymakers through an offensive policy directed practice. These findings contribute to the development of the role of the social worker itself, influenced by security logics and policy, and suggests how this can be dealt with through a clearer demarcation between what is and what is not included in the tasks and responsibilities of social workers in PVE.
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Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006) 'Using thematic analysis in psychology', Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
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Grandey, A. A. and Melloy, R. C. (2017) 'The state of the heart: Emotional labor as emotion regulation reviewed and revised.', Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3), 407- 422.
https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000067
Grootegoed, E. and Smith, M. (2018) 'The Emotional Labour of Austerity: How Social Workers Reflect and Work on Their Feelings towards Reducing Support to Needy Children and Families', The British Journal of Social Work, 48(7), 1929-1947.
https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcx151
Gross, J. J. and Levenson, R. W. (1997) 'Hiding feelings: The acute effects of inhibiting negative and positive emotion.', Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 95-103.
https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843X.106.1.95
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https://doi.org/10.1108/S1746-979120140000010019
Gunnarsdóttir, H. M. (2016) 'Autonomy and Emotion Management. Middle managers in welfare professions during radical organizational change', Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies, 6(1), 87-108.
https://doi.org/10.19154/njwls.v6i1.4887
Gunnarsdóttir, H. M. and Studsrød, I. (2019) 'Barnevernspedagogens emosjonelle arbeid- å bruke seg selv', in Barnevernspedagog- En grunnbok. Universitetsforlaget, 93-109.
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Haugstvedt, H. (2019) 'Trusting the Mistrusted: Norwegian Social Workers' Strategies in Preventing Radicalization and Violent Extremism', Journal for Deradicalization, (19), 149- 184.
Haugstvedt, H. (2020) 'Research Note: "How Can I Get Them Offstage?" - Critical Reflections on a Researcher's Approach to Qualitative Data Collection with Social Workers Involved in Preventing Violent Extremism in Norway', Journal for Deradicalization, (23), 214-234.
Hochschild, A. R. (2003) The managed heart: commercialization of human feeling. 20th anniversary ed. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520930414
Hülsheger, U. R. and Schewe, A. F. (2011) 'On the costs and benefits of emotional labor: A meta-analysis of three decades of research', Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16(3), 361-389.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022876
Indregard, A.-M. R., Knardahl, S. and Nielsen, M. B. (2017) 'Emotional dissonance and sickness absence: a prospective study of employees working with clients', International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 90(1), 83-92.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-016-1176-9
Ingram, R. (2013) 'Emotions, social work practice and supervision: an uneasy alliance?', Journal of Social Work Practice, 27(1), 5-19.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02650533.2012.745842
Ingram, R. (2015) Understanding Emotions in Social Work: Theory, Practice and Reflection. Berkshire: England.
International Association of Schools of Social Work (2018) Global Social Work Statement of Ethical Principles. International Association of Schools of Social Work. Available at: https://www.iassw-aiets.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Global-Social-Work-Statement-of- Ethical-Principles-IASSW-27-April-2018-1.pdf.
Judge, T. A., Woolf, E. F. and Hurst, C. (2009) 'IS EMOTIONAL LABOR MORE DIFFICULT FOR SOME THAN FOR OTHERS? A MULTILEVEL, EXPERIENCE-SAMPLING STUDY', Personnel Psychology, 62(1), 57-88.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.01129.x
Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D. et al. (2013) 'A Meta-Analytic Structural Model of Dispositonal Affectivity and Emotional Labor', Personnel Psychology, 66(1), 47-90.
https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12009
Kanasz, T. and Zielinska, I. (2017) 'Emotional Labour of the Polish Social Workers: The Study in Sociology of Emotions', Polish Sociological Review, 199(3), 351-365.
Katz, D. and Kahn, R. L. (1978) The social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley.
Khan, M. A. S. et al. (2019) 'Rejuvenating The Concept Of Work Alienation Through Job Demands-Resources Model And Examining Its Relationship With Emotional Exhaustion And Explorative And Exploitative Learning', Psychology Research and Behavior Management, Volume 12, 931-941.
https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S204193
Koehler, D. (2017) Understanding Deradicalization. Methods, tools and programs for countering violent extremism. New York, NY: Routledge (Contemporary Terrorism Studies).
Koehler, D. and Fiebig, V. (2019) 'Knowing What to Do: Academic and Practitioner Understanding of How to Counter Violent Radicalization', Perspectives on Terrorism, 13(3), 44-62.
Kruml, S. M. and Geddes, D. (2000) 'Exploring the Dimensions of Emotional Labor: The Heart of Hochschild's Work', Management Communication Quarterly, 14(1), 8-49.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0893318900141002
Lavrakas, P. J. (2008) Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods. SAGE Publications.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412963947
Lid, S. et al. (2016) Forebygging av radikalisering og voldelig ekstremisme. Hva er kommunenes rolle? 2. NIBR, 1-289.
https://doi.org/10.7577/nibr/rapport/2016/12
Lindsay, T. and Danner, S. (2008) 'Accepting the unacceptable: the concept of acceptance in work with the perpetrators of hate crime', European Journal of Social Work, 11(1), 43-56.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13691450701356655
Lloyd, C., King, R. and Chenoweth, L. (2002) 'Social work, stress and burnout: A review', Journal of Mental Health, 11(3), 255-265.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09638230020023642
McKendrick, D. and Finch, J. (2016) '"Under Heavy Manners?": Social Work, Radicalisation, Troubled Families and Non-Linear War', British Journal of Social Work, 308- 324.
https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcv141
Miller, C. S., Hoggett, P. and Mayo, M. (2006) 'The obsession with outputs: over regulation and the impact on the emotional identities of public service professionals', International Journal on Work Organization and Emotion, 1(4), 366-378.
https://doi.org/10.1504/IJWOE.2006.011877
Neumann, P. R. (2013) 'The trouble with radicalization', International Affairs, 89(4), 873- 893.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.12049
Noor, M. and Halabi, S. (2018) 'Can we forgive a militant outgroup member? The role of perspective-taking', Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 21(4), 246-255.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12328
Police Security Service (2016) Temarapport: Hvilken bakgrunn har personer som frekventerer ekstreme islamistiske miljøer i Norge før de blir radikalisert? Ekstern rapport. Oslo: Police Security Service. Available at: https://pst.no/alle- artikler/utgivelser/radikaliseringsprosjektets-rapport/.
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https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-017-0061-9
Rafaeli, A. (1987) 'Expression of Emotion as Part of the Work Role', Academy of Management Review, 12(1), 23-37.
https://doi.org/10.2307/257991
Ragazzi, F. (2017) 'Countering terrorism and radicalisation: Securitising social policy?', Critical Social Policy, 37(2), 163-179.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018316683472
Rizkalla, L., Wertheim, E. H. and Hodgson, L. K. (2008) 'The roles of emotion management and perspective taking in individuals' conflict management styles and disposition to forgive', Journal of Research in Personality, 42(6), 1594-1601.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.07.014
Shapiro, E. L. (2000) 'The Double Session in Psychoanalytic Therapy', The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice & Research, 9(1), 18-247.
Sivenbring, J. and Malmros, R. A. (2020) Mixing Logics. Multiagency Approaches for Countering Violent Extremism. Gøteborg: Segerstedtinstitutet, Gøteborgs Universitet.
Staller, K. M. (2019) 'Connecting the dots: What has terrorism got to do with social work?', Qualitative Social Work, 18(4), 557-561.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1473325019857417
Todd, A. R. et al. (2015) 'Anxious and egocentric: How specific emotions influence perspective taking.', Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 374-391.
https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000048
Warming, H. (2019) 'Messing with the emotions of the other exploring ambiguous youth- adult relations in a residential care institution', Emotion, Space and Society, 32.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emospa.2018.05.005
Yin, R. (2016) Qualitative Research from Start to Finish. New York: The Guildford Press.
Zapf, D. and Holz, M. (2006) 'On the positive and negative effects of emotion work in organizations', European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 15(1), 1-28.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320500412199
https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980009600860
Adams, R. E., Boscarino, J. A. and Figley, C. R. (2006) 'Compassion fatigue and psychological distress among social workers: A validation study.', American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(1), 103-108.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.76.1.103
Ashforth, B. E. and Humphrey, R. H. (1993) 'Emotional Labor in Service Roles: The Influence of Identity', The Academy of Management Review, 18(1), 88-105.
https://doi.org/10.2307/258824
Bechtoldt, M. N. et al. (2007) 'Main and moderating effects of self-control, organizational justice, and emotional labour on counterproductive behaviour at work.', European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 16(4), 479-500.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320701662618
Bjørgo, T. (2016) Preventing Crime. A Holistic Appraoch. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. Blaikie, N. (2010) Designing Social Research. The Logic of Anticipation. Second Edition. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Bolton, S. C. (2005) Emotion Management in the Workplace. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006) 'Using thematic analysis in psychology', Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Bride, B. E. (2007) 'Prevalence of Secondary Traumatic Stress among Social Workers', Social Work, 52(1), 63-70.
https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/52.1.63
Brotheridge, C. M. and Grandey, A. A. (2002) 'Emotional Labor and Burnout: Comparing Two Perspectives of "People Work"', Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60(1), 17-39.
https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2001.1815
Chudzik, L. (2016) 'Therapeutic Assessment of a Violent Criminal Offender: Managing the Cultural Narrative of Evil', Journal of Personality Assessment, 98(6), 585-589.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2016.1215321
Dwyer, S. (2007) 'THE EMOTIONAL IMPACT OF SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE', Journal of Social Work Practice, 21(1), 49-60.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02650530601173607
Egan, G. (2014) The Skilled Helper. A problem-Management and Opputunity-Development Approach to Helping. Tenth Edition. Belmont, CA: BROOKS/COLE.
Finch, J. et al. (2019) 'Social work and countering violent extremism in Sweden and the UK', European Journal of Social Work, 1-12.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13691457.2019.1657803
Gerace, A. et al. (2017) '"I Think, You Think": Understanding the Importance of Self- Reflection to the Taking of Another Person's Perspective', Journal of Relationships Research, 8.
https://doi.org/10.1017/jrr.2017.8
Grandey, A. A. (2000) 'Emotional regulation in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize emotional labor.', Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 95-110.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.95
Grandey, A. A. and Melloy, R. C. (2017) 'The state of the heart: Emotional labor as emotion regulation reviewed and revised.', Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3), 407- 422.
https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000067
Grootegoed, E. and Smith, M. (2018) 'The Emotional Labour of Austerity: How Social Workers Reflect and Work on Their Feelings towards Reducing Support to Needy Children and Families', The British Journal of Social Work, 48(7), 1929-1947.
https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcx151
Gross, J. J. and Levenson, R. W. (1997) 'Hiding feelings: The acute effects of inhibiting negative and positive emotion.', Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 95-103.
https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843X.106.1.95
Gunnarsdóttir, H. M. (2014) 'Gender and Person/Role Conflict in Management: A Study of Gender, Management Position, and Emotional Dissonance Among Managers in a Scandinavian Setting', Emotions and the Organizational Fabric, 10, 271-303.
https://doi.org/10.1108/S1746-979120140000010019
Gunnarsdóttir, H. M. (2016) 'Autonomy and Emotion Management. Middle managers in welfare professions during radical organizational change', Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies, 6(1), 87-108.
https://doi.org/10.19154/njwls.v6i1.4887
Gunnarsdóttir, H. M. and Studsrød, I. (2019) 'Barnevernspedagogens emosjonelle arbeid- å bruke seg selv', in Barnevernspedagog- En grunnbok. Universitetsforlaget, 93-109.
Gurski, P. (2018) The damned if you do damned if you don't problem with CVE, The Resilience Post. Available at: https://resiliencepost.com/2018/05/16/the-damned-if-you-do- damned-if-you-dont-problem-with-cve/ (Accessed: 20 July 2020).
Haugstvedt, H. (2019) 'Trusting the Mistrusted: Norwegian Social Workers' Strategies in Preventing Radicalization and Violent Extremism', Journal for Deradicalization, (19), 149- 184.
Haugstvedt, H. (2020) 'Research Note: "How Can I Get Them Offstage?" - Critical Reflections on a Researcher's Approach to Qualitative Data Collection with Social Workers Involved in Preventing Violent Extremism in Norway', Journal for Deradicalization, (23), 214-234.
Hochschild, A. R. (2003) The managed heart: commercialization of human feeling. 20th anniversary ed. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520930414
Hülsheger, U. R. and Schewe, A. F. (2011) 'On the costs and benefits of emotional labor: A meta-analysis of three decades of research', Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16(3), 361-389.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022876
Indregard, A.-M. R., Knardahl, S. and Nielsen, M. B. (2017) 'Emotional dissonance and sickness absence: a prospective study of employees working with clients', International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 90(1), 83-92.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-016-1176-9
Ingram, R. (2013) 'Emotions, social work practice and supervision: an uneasy alliance?', Journal of Social Work Practice, 27(1), 5-19.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02650533.2012.745842
Ingram, R. (2015) Understanding Emotions in Social Work: Theory, Practice and Reflection. Berkshire: England.
International Association of Schools of Social Work (2018) Global Social Work Statement of Ethical Principles. International Association of Schools of Social Work. Available at: https://www.iassw-aiets.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Global-Social-Work-Statement-of- Ethical-Principles-IASSW-27-April-2018-1.pdf.
Judge, T. A., Woolf, E. F. and Hurst, C. (2009) 'IS EMOTIONAL LABOR MORE DIFFICULT FOR SOME THAN FOR OTHERS? A MULTILEVEL, EXPERIENCE-SAMPLING STUDY', Personnel Psychology, 62(1), 57-88.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.01129.x
Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D. et al. (2013) 'A Meta-Analytic Structural Model of Dispositonal Affectivity and Emotional Labor', Personnel Psychology, 66(1), 47-90.
https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12009
Kanasz, T. and Zielinska, I. (2017) 'Emotional Labour of the Polish Social Workers: The Study in Sociology of Emotions', Polish Sociological Review, 199(3), 351-365.
Katz, D. and Kahn, R. L. (1978) The social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley.
Khan, M. A. S. et al. (2019) 'Rejuvenating The Concept Of Work Alienation Through Job Demands-Resources Model And Examining Its Relationship With Emotional Exhaustion And Explorative And Exploitative Learning', Psychology Research and Behavior Management, Volume 12, 931-941.
https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S204193
Koehler, D. (2017) Understanding Deradicalization. Methods, tools and programs for countering violent extremism. New York, NY: Routledge (Contemporary Terrorism Studies).
Koehler, D. and Fiebig, V. (2019) 'Knowing What to Do: Academic and Practitioner Understanding of How to Counter Violent Radicalization', Perspectives on Terrorism, 13(3), 44-62.
Kruml, S. M. and Geddes, D. (2000) 'Exploring the Dimensions of Emotional Labor: The Heart of Hochschild's Work', Management Communication Quarterly, 14(1), 8-49.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0893318900141002
Lavrakas, P. J. (2008) Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods. SAGE Publications.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412963947
Lid, S. et al. (2016) Forebygging av radikalisering og voldelig ekstremisme. Hva er kommunenes rolle? 2. NIBR, 1-289.
https://doi.org/10.7577/nibr/rapport/2016/12
Lindsay, T. and Danner, S. (2008) 'Accepting the unacceptable: the concept of acceptance in work with the perpetrators of hate crime', European Journal of Social Work, 11(1), 43-56.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13691450701356655
Lloyd, C., King, R. and Chenoweth, L. (2002) 'Social work, stress and burnout: A review', Journal of Mental Health, 11(3), 255-265.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09638230020023642
McKendrick, D. and Finch, J. (2016) '"Under Heavy Manners?": Social Work, Radicalisation, Troubled Families and Non-Linear War', British Journal of Social Work, 308- 324.
https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcv141
Miller, C. S., Hoggett, P. and Mayo, M. (2006) 'The obsession with outputs: over regulation and the impact on the emotional identities of public service professionals', International Journal on Work Organization and Emotion, 1(4), 366-378.
https://doi.org/10.1504/IJWOE.2006.011877
Neumann, P. R. (2013) 'The trouble with radicalization', International Affairs, 89(4), 873- 893.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.12049
Noor, M. and Halabi, S. (2018) 'Can we forgive a militant outgroup member? The role of perspective-taking', Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 21(4), 246-255.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12328
Police Security Service (2016) Temarapport: Hvilken bakgrunn har personer som frekventerer ekstreme islamistiske miljøer i Norge før de blir radikalisert? Ekstern rapport. Oslo: Police Security Service. Available at: https://pst.no/alle- artikler/utgivelser/radikaliseringsprosjektets-rapport/.
Police Security Service (2019) Temarapport: Hvilken bakgrunn har personer i høyreekstreme miljøer i Norge? Oslo: Police Security Service.
Qurashi, F. (2018) 'The Prevent strategy and the UK "war on terror": embedding infrastructures of surveillance in Muslim communities', Palgrave Communications, 4(1), 1- 13.
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-017-0061-9
Rafaeli, A. (1987) 'Expression of Emotion as Part of the Work Role', Academy of Management Review, 12(1), 23-37.
https://doi.org/10.2307/257991
Ragazzi, F. (2017) 'Countering terrorism and radicalisation: Securitising social policy?', Critical Social Policy, 37(2), 163-179.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018316683472
Rizkalla, L., Wertheim, E. H. and Hodgson, L. K. (2008) 'The roles of emotion management and perspective taking in individuals' conflict management styles and disposition to forgive', Journal of Research in Personality, 42(6), 1594-1601.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.07.014
Shapiro, E. L. (2000) 'The Double Session in Psychoanalytic Therapy', The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice & Research, 9(1), 18-247.
Sivenbring, J. and Malmros, R. A. (2020) Mixing Logics. Multiagency Approaches for Countering Violent Extremism. Gøteborg: Segerstedtinstitutet, Gøteborgs Universitet.
Staller, K. M. (2019) 'Connecting the dots: What has terrorism got to do with social work?', Qualitative Social Work, 18(4), 557-561.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1473325019857417
Todd, A. R. et al. (2015) 'Anxious and egocentric: How specific emotions influence perspective taking.', Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 374-391.
https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000048
Warming, H. (2019) 'Messing with the emotions of the other exploring ambiguous youth- adult relations in a residential care institution', Emotion, Space and Society, 32.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emospa.2018.05.005
Yin, R. (2016) Qualitative Research from Start to Finish. New York: The Guildford Press.
Zapf, D. and Holz, M. (2006) 'On the positive and negative effects of emotion work in organizations', European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 15(1), 1-28.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320500412199
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October 6, 2021
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